Geothermal energization of a non-combustion chemical reactor and associated systems and methods

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods for heating a non-combustion chemical reactor with thermal energy from a geothermal heat source are described. A working fluid is directed from the geothermal heat source to the chemical reactor to transfer heat. The working fluid can be circulated in a closed system so that it does not contact material at the geothermal heat source, or in an open system that allows the working fluid to intermix with material at the geothermal heat source. When intermixing with material at the geothermal heat source, the working fluid can transport donor substances at the geothermal heat source to the chemical reactor.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation-in-part of pending U.S.application Ser. No. 13/584,688, filed on Aug. 13, 2012, which claimspriority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/523,266, filed on Aug.12, 2011 and incorporated herein by reference. To the extent theforegoing provisional application and/or any other materialsincorporated herein by reference conflict with the present disclosure,the present disclosure controls.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present application is directed generally to systems and methods fortransferring heat from geothermal sources to chemical reactors. Inparticular embodiments, the heat provided by the geothermal sourcesfacilitates the operation of a non-combustion chemical reactor.

BACKGROUND

Chemical processes that require a substantial amount of heat are oftenexpensive to operate when the heating is provided by non-renewableenergy sources. Self-sustaining and renewable sources of thermal energycan provide sufficient thermal energy to operate or facilitate theoperation of thermal reactors, but conveying sufficient thermal energyfrom geothermal sources to the reactors can be difficult. In light ofthe foregoing, there remains a need to efficiently transfer geothermalenergy to heat chemical processing reactors in a sustainable manner.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a partially schematic, partially cross-sectional illustrationof a chemical processing system having a thermochemical processing (TCP)reactor configured in accordance with an embodiment of the presentlydisclosed technology.

FIG. 2A is a partially schematic illustration of a thermochemicalreactor heated by a closed system communicating with a geothermal sourcein accordance with an embodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. 2B is a partially schematic illustration of a thermochemicalreactor coupled to an elevated closed system communicating with ageothermal source in accordance with an embodiment of the presentlydisclosed technology.

FIG. 2C is a partially schematic illustration of a closed systemextending between an underground geothermal source and an elevatedlocation on a representative building in accordance with an embodimentof the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. 2D is a partially schematic illustration of a closed systemextending between an underground geothermal source and an elevatedlocation on a representative tower in accordance with an embodiment ofthe presently disclosed technology.

FIG. 2E is a partially schematic illustration of a closed systemextending between an underground geothermal source and an elevatedlocation on a representative offshore oil product platform in accordancewith an embodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. 2F is a partially schematic illustration of a closed systemextending between an underground geothermal source and an elevatedlocation on a representative electrical tower in accordance with anembodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. 3 is a partially schematic illustration of a thermochemical reactorheated by an open system having an elevated portion and communicatingwith a geothermal source in accordance with an embodiment of thepresently disclosed technology.

FIG. 4 is a partially schematic illustration of a thermochemical reactorheated by an open system communicating with a geothermal source inaccordance with an embodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. 5 is a partially schematic illustration of a system fortransporting fluids from one site to another using elevation gain andphase change to assist in the transport, in accordance with anembodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. R1-1 is a partially schematic, partially cross-sectionalillustration of a system having a reactor with transmissive surfaces inaccordance with an embodiment of the disclosed technology.

FIG. R1-2 is a partially schematic, cut-away illustration of a portionof a reactor having transmissive surfaces positioned annularly inaccordance with an embodiment of the disclosed technology.

FIG. R2-1 is a partially schematic, partially cross-sectionalillustration of a system having a reactor with a re-radiation componentin accordance with an embodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. R2-2 illustrates absorption characteristics as a function ofwavelength for a representative reactant and re-radiation material, inaccordance with an embodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. R2-3 is an enlarged, partially schematic illustration of a portionof the reactor shown in FIG. R2-1 having a re-radiation componentconfigured in accordance with a particular embodiment of the presentlydisclosed technology.

FIG. R3-1 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a thermal transferdevice configured in accordance with an embodiment of the presenttechnology.

FIGS. R3-2A and R3-2B are schematic cross-sectional views of thermaltransfer devices configured in accordance with other embodiments of thepresent technology.

FIG. R3-3A is a schematic cross-sectional view of a thermal transferdevice operating in a first direction in accordance with a furtherembodiment of the present technology, and FIG. R3-3B is a schematiccross-sectional view of the thermal transfer device of FIG. R3-3Aoperating in a second direction opposite the first direction.

FIG. R3-4 is a partially schematic illustration of a heat pump suitablefor transferring heat in accordance with an embodiment of the presenttechnology.

FIG. R4-1 is a partially schematic illustration of a system having asolar concentrator that directs heat to a reactor vessel in accordancewith an embodiment of the disclosed technology.

FIG. R4-2 is a partially schematic, enlarged illustration of a portionof a reactor vessel, including additional features for controlling thedelivery of solar energy to the reaction zone in accordance with anembodiment of the disclosed technology.

FIG. R4-3 is a partially schematic, cross-sectional illustration of anembodiment of a reactor vessel having annularly positioned productremoval and reactant delivery systems in accordance with an embodimentof the disclosure.

FIG. R5-1 is a partially schematic, partial cross-sectional illustrationof a system having a solar concentrator configured in accordance with anembodiment of the present technology.

FIG. R5-2 is a partially schematic, partial cross-sectional illustrationof an embodiment of the system shown in FIG. 1 with the solarconcentrator configured to emit energy in a cooling process, inaccordance with an embodiment of the disclosure.

FIG. R5-3 is a partially schematic, partial cross-sectional illustrationof a system having a movable solar concentrator dish in accordance withan embodiment of the disclosure.

FIG. R6-1 is a partially schematic illustration of a system having areactor with facing substrates for operation in a batch mode inaccordance with an embodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. R7-1 is a partially schematic, partially cross-sectionalillustration of a reactor system that receives energy from a combustionengine and returns reaction products to the engine in accordance with anembodiment of the presently disclosed technology.

FIG. R8-1 is a partially schematic, cross-sectional illustration of areactor having interacting endothermic and exothermic reaction zones inaccordance with an embodiment of the disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure is directed generally to systems and methods forusing geothermal energy to heat a chemical reaction, e.g., anon-combustion chemical reaction, in a thermochemical processing (TCP)reactor system. TCP reactors can process the fluids collected fromvarious sources to provide hydrogen and/or other products. Accordingly,these systems can in particular embodiments use a renewable energysource (geothermal heat) to process carbon-based or other hydrogendonors (that are normally combusted), into clean-burning hydrogen andcarbon-based structural building blocks.

1. Overview

Several examples of devices, systems and methods using geothermal energyto provide heat to a TCP reactor and/or to facilitate reactions in a TCPreactor are described below. The heating systems and TCP reactors can beused in accordance with multiple operational modes, depending on theparticular embodiment, to transfer thermal energy and separate incomingreactants. In particular embodiments, the process of separating caninclude reforming, re-speciating, and/or dissociating a donor substance(e.g., methane) into a hydrogen component and a non-hydrogen donorcomponent (e.g., carbon). The operational modes can include furtherprocesses of reformation, re-speciation, and/or combination of theproducts resulting from the TCP reactor processes and/or additionalconstituents. In particular embodiments, the system can also producecompounds of nitrogen (e.g., ammonia) for use as a working fluid.Although the following description provides many specific details ofrepresentative examples in a manner sufficient to enable a personskilled in the relevant art to practice, make and use them, several ofthe details and advantages described below may not be necessary topractice certain examples of the technology. Additionally, thetechnology can include other examples that are within the scope of thepresent technology but are not described here in detail.

References throughout this specification to “one example,” “an example,”“one embodiment” or “an embodiment” mean that a particular feature,structure, process or characteristic described in connection with theexample is included in at least one example of the present technology.Thus, the occurrences of the phrases “in one example,” “in an example,”“one embodiment” or “an embodiment” in various places throughout thisspecification are not necessarily all referring to the same example.Furthermore, the particular features, structures, routines, steps orcharacteristics may be combined in any of a number of suitable mannersin one or more examples of the technology. The headings provided hereinare for convenience only and are not intended to limit or interpret thescope or meaning of the present technology.

Certain embodiments of the technology described below may take the formof computer-executable instructions, including routines executed by aprogrammable computer or controller. Those skilled in the relevant artwill appreciate that the technology can be practiced on computer orcontroller systems other than those shown and described below. Thetechnology can be embodied in a special-purpose computer, controller, ordata processor that is specifically programmed, configured orconstructed to perform one or more of the computer-executableinstructions described below. Accordingly, the terms “computer” and“controller” as generally used herein refer to any data processor andcan include Internet appliances, hand-held devices, multi-processorsystems, programmable consumer electronics, network computers,mini-computers, and the like. The technology can also be practiced indistributed environments where tasks or modules are performed by remoteprocessing devices that are linked through a communications network.Aspects of the technology described below may be stored or distributedon computer-readable media, including magnetic or optically readable orremovable computer discs as well as media distributed electronicallyover networks. In particular embodiments, data structures andtransmissions of data particular to aspects of the technology are alsoencompassed within the scope of the present technology. The presenttechnology encompasses methods of both programming computer-readablemedia to perform particular steps, and executing the steps.

2. Representative TCP Reactors and TCP Reactor Systems

FIG. 1 is a partially schematic illustration of a representative TCPreactor 100 and reactor system 110. Further representative TCP reactorsand reactor systems are described in detail in U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 13/027,208 (Attorney Docket No. 69545.8601 US), titled“CHEMICAL PROCESSES AND REACTORS FOR EFFICIENTLY PRODUCING HYDROGENFUELS AND STRUCTURAL MATERIALS, AND ASSOCIATED SYSTEMS AND METHODS,”filed Feb. 14, 2011, incorporated herein by reference and referred to asthe '208 application. As illustrated, the representative reactor 100 hasa reactor vessel 102 configured and insulated to provide control ofreaction conditions, including an elevated temperature and/or pressurewithin the interior of a reactor chamber 104, sufficient to reform ordissociate a donor substance 106 introduced into the reactor 100. Thereforming or dissociation processes are non-combustive processes and canbe conducted in accordance with the parameters described in the '208application previously incorporated herein by reference. The reactorsystem 110 can include heat exchangers, heaters, piping, valves,sensors, ionizers, and other equipment (not shown in FIG. 1) tofacilitate introducing the donor substance 106 into the TCP reactor 100,to facilitate reforming, respeciating and/or dissociating the donorsubstance 106 within the reactor 100, and to facilitate extractingdissociated and/or reformed components of the donor substance 106 fromthe reactor 100.

The reactor chamber 104 includes one or more donor inlets 108 forreceiving the donor substance 106 from a donor source 112. In particularembodiments, the donor substance 106 is a hydrogen donor and can be asolid, liquid, and in further embodiments a gaseous hydrocarbon, e.g.,methane gas. The donor substance 106 can include other carbon-basedcompounds, e.g., ethane, propane or butane, along with cetane and/oroctane rated compounds. In still further embodiments, the donorsubstance 106 can include a lower grade constituent, e.g., off-gradecetane or octane rated hydrocarbons, or wet alcohol. In at least someembodiments, the donor substance can include compounds other thanhydrocarbon fuels (e.g., carbohydrates, fats, alcohols, esters,cellulose and/or others). In yet further embodiments, the hydrogen donor106 can include hydrogen atoms in combination with constituents otherthan carbon. For example, nitrogenous compounds (e.g., ammonia and/orurea) can serve a similar hydrogen donor function. Examples of othersuitable hydrogen donors are described in the '208 application,previously incorporated herein by reference. In yet further embodiments,the donor substance can donate constituents other than hydrogen. Forexample, the reactor 100 can dissociate oxygen from CO₂ and/or anotheroxygen donor, or the reactor 100 can dissociate a halogen donor. Thedonor substance 106 can be in a gaseous or liquid form that isdistributed into the reactor chamber 104 through donor inlet nozzles114. Typically, the donor substance 106 is provided as a vapor or gas.In other embodiments, the donor substance 106 can be a liquid or vaporthat undergoes a gas phase transition in the reactor chamber 104.

In the reactor chamber 104, the donor substance 106 undergoesreformation, partial oxidation and/or a non-combustion-baseddissociation reaction and dissociates into at least two components,e.g., a gas 120 and a solid 122. In other embodiments, the dissociatedcomponents can take the form of a liquid and a gas, or two gases,depending on the donor substance used and the dissociation processparameters. In further embodiments, the donor substance 106 candissociate into three or more dissociated components in the form of asolid, gas, or liquid, or a mixture of these phases. In a particularembodiment, methane is the donor substance, and the dissociatedcomponents are carbon and hydrogen.

When carbon is a dissociated component, it can be disposed as a solid122 on an internal donor solid (e.g., carbon) collector 124 within thereactor chamber 104, and when hydrogen is a dissociated component, itcan be in the form of a gas 120 within the reaction chamber 104. Thecarbon can be transferred from the internal collector 124 to anindustrial manufacturing or packaging plant via a storage tank or otherreceptacle 115 as shown by arrow 121. The hydrogen gas can react withcarbon dioxide from sources such as a combustion chamber 140 and/or thedonor source 112 for production of fluids such as selected alcoholsand/or water. In other embodiments, the hydrogen and carbon can beremoved from the reaction chamber 104 together (e.g., in gaseous formssuch as H₂ and CO and/or CO₂ and/or CH₃OH and/or C₂H₅OH, among others)and separated outside the reaction chamber 104. Substances such ashydrogen 117, carbon monoxide 127, and water 129 can be collected byselective filtration, pressure or temperature swing adsorption and/orphase separation processes in separation/collection subsystems (e.g.,collectors) 131 a, 131 b and 131 c. Any remaining constituents can becollected at an additional collector 128. Products at elevatedtemperature can exchange heat with the donor substance (e.g., feedstocks) 106 to cool the outgoing products and heat the incomingreactants. As described above, in many of these embodiments, the donorsubstance functions as a hydrogen donor, and is dissociated intomolecules of hydrogen (or a hydrogen compound) and molecules of thedonor (or a donor compound).

In addition to removing the reaction products to access the products forother purposes, the reaction products can be removed in a manner and/orat a rate that facilitates the reaction taking place in the reactorchamber 104. For example, solid products (e.g., carbon) can be removedvia a conveyor, and fluids (gases and/or liquids) can be removed via aselective filter or membrane to avoid also removing reactants. As theproducts are removed, they can exchange heat with the incomingreactants, as discussed above. In addition to pre-heating the reactants,this process can contract and/or change the phase of the products, whichcan further expedite the removal process and/or control (e.g., reduce)the pressure in the reactor chamber 104. In a particular embodiment,condensing water and/or alcohols from the product stream can achievethis purpose. In any of these embodiments, removing the reactantsquickly rather than slowly can increase the rate and/or efficiency ofthe reaction conducted in the chamber 104.

In at least some embodiments, substances such as energy crops, forestslash, landfill waste and/or other organic wastes can be transferredinto the reactor chamber 104, e.g., via the donor inlet 108, and can beanaerobically heated to produce gases such as methane, water vapor,hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. This process and/or other processes cancreate ash, which, if allowed to accumulate, can interfere withradiative heating and/or other processes within the reactor chamber 104.Accordingly, an ash residue 123 can be collected at an ash collector 125and transferred to an external ash collector or receptacle 119 (asindicated by arrow 113) for various uses such as returning traceminerals to improve crop productivity from hydroponic operations orsoil, or as a constituent in concrete formulas. The ash collector 125can be cooled and/or positioned to selectively attract ash deposits asopposed to other products and/or reactants. In at least someembodiments, the ash may also contain char, which can also be collected.In general, the amount of ash and/or char introduced to and removed fromthe reactor 100 depends in part on the composition of the donor 106,with relatively simple and/or pure donors (e.g., pure methane) producinglittle or no ash and char. In any of these embodiments, an advantageassociated with collecting the ash within the reactor chamber 104 ratherthan from the products exiting the chamber is that the ash is lesslikely to contaminate, foul and/or otherwise interfere with theefficient operation of the reactor 100. Benefits of the presentembodiments include an increased tolerance regarding the rate with whichthe ash 123 is produced and/or removed from the reactor chamber 104. Asa result, the ash may have little or no effect on the reaction rate inthe chamber 104, and so may not be controlled as closely as the productremoval rate.

The reaction chamber 104 includes one or more reaction chamber exitports 126 (one is shown schematically in FIG. 1) through which gaseousor liquid dissociated components can be removed and delivered forsubsequent processing or containment. The donor inlet nozzle 114, donorsolid collector 124, and reaction chamber exit port 126 can bepositioned to enhance (e.g., maximize) the movement of the donorsubstance 106 and dissociated components 120 and 122 through thereaction chamber 104, so as to facilitate accumulating and removing thedissociated components from the TCP reactor 100. The TCP reactor 100 canalso include one or more solid collector exit ports 130 (two are shownin FIG. 1) through which the solid dissociated component 122 and/or ash123 can be removed from the reactor 100. Representative carbon-basedproducts from the reactor 100 include carbon, silicon carbide,halogenated hydrocarbons, graphite, and graphene. These products can befurther processed, e.g., to form carbon films, ceramics, semiconductordevices, polymers and/or other structures. Accordingly, the products ofthe reaction conducted in the reactor 100 can be architecturalconstructs or structural building blocks that can be used as is or afterfurther processing. Other suitable products are described in the '208application.

As described above, the TCP reactor 100 can be configured to facilitatethe ingress of the donor substance 106 into the reactor chamber 104, andto permit the egress of materials, including the dissociated components120 and 122 from the reactor chamber, e.g., as summarized in Equation 1below. The TCP reactor 100 can also receive additional thermal energyprovided by a heater 132 via concentrated solar energy or regenerativeelectric heating or by circulating heat transfer fluids. At times whensolar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal or another off-peak energy isavailable in excess of the demand for operating the system 110, energy(e.g., heat energy) can be stored in an insulated heat battery ortransferred into a heated water storage medium. In particularembodiments, the TCP reactor 100, and the TCP reactor system 110 as awhole, can be configured to permit the ingress or egress of additionalsubstances and/or energy into or out of the reaction chamber 104. Theseadditional substances and/or energies can be applied to modify theoperation of the TCP reactor 100 so as to accept different donorsubstances, to provide different dissociated and/or reformed components,to provide greater control over the dissociation reaction, and/or toprovide greater efficiency in the operation of the TCP reactor system.

In the representative system of FIG. 1, a reactant distributor 134 foradditional reactants e.g., water (steam), is disposed in the reactorchamber 104 to provide supplemental heat and/or constituents. Water inthe reaction chamber 104 can also participate in reactions such asreforming steam and methane into the products shown in Equation 2 below.Accordingly, Equations 1 and 2 illustrate representative dissociationand reformation processes without water (or another oxygen donor) as areactant and with water (or another oxygen donor, e.g., air) as areactant:

CH₄+HEAT₁→C+2H₂  (1)

CH₄+H₂O+HEAT₂→CO+3H₂  (2)

In a particular embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the combustion chamber 140directs combustion products 142 into the reaction chamber 100 through acombustion product inlet 144 as indicated by arrow 143. Theheat-emitting combustion products 142 pass through the reactor 100 so asto provide additional heat to the reactor chamber 104 and exit via anoutlet 146. The combustion products inlet 144 and outlet 146 can bejoined by a pipe or conduit 148 that facilitates transferring heat fromthe combustion products 142 into the reaction chamber 104 and that, inparticular embodiments, allows some or all of the combustion products142 to enter the reaction chamber 104 through a permeable ortransmissive surface of the conduit 148. Such products can include steamand/or oxides of carbon, nitrogen, and/or oxygen, and such surfaces aredescribed further in U.S. application Ser. No. 13/026,996 (AttorneyDocket No. 69545.8602US), titled “REACTOR VESSELS WITH TRANSMISSIVESURFACES FOR PRODUCING HYDROGEN-BASED FUELS AND STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS, ANDASSOCIATED SYSTEMS AND METHODS,” filed Feb. 14, 2011 and incorporatedherein by reference. Accordingly, the combustion products 142 cansupplement the donor substance 106 as a source of hydrogen and/or donormolecules. In further embodiments, the reactor 100 can also include oneor more heat exchangers (e.g., counterflow heat exchangers) as describedin the '208 application. In any of these embodiments, sufficient heat istransmitted to the reactor 100 to enable the non-combustion dissociationreaction that separates the donor substance 106 into the donor-basedcomponent and hydrogen or hydrogen-based component.

Reactors having any of the foregoing configurations can be used toprocess substances obtained from a number of liquid, vapor, and/or gasproducing sites. Representative sites include a landfill where organicaction has produced recoverably valuable quantities of methane and/orcarbon dioxide, the sea floor (holding frozen methane hydrates subjectto mobilization such as via thawing), permafrost, deposits of degradinglimestone that release carbon dioxide, anaerobically digested paperand/or paper products, and stranded well gas. Reactors processing thegases provided from such sites, and/or other sites, require heat tofacilitate the non-combustion reaction, dissociation, and/or hydrolyticreactions. The necessary heat may be obtained in whole or in part fromsolar, wind, geothermal and/or other sources. Representative techniquesfor providing energy from a geothermal source to a TCP reactor aredescribed below with reference to FIGS. 2-4.

3. Representative Geothermally-Heated TCP Reactor Systems

Reactors having any of the foregoing configurations can be used toprocess substances obtained from a number of liquid, vapor, and/orgas-producing sites. Representative sites include a landfill whereorganic action has produced recoverably valuable quantities of methaneand/or carbon dioxide, the sea floor (holding frozen methane hydratessubject to mobilization such as via thawing), permafrost, deposits ofdegrading limestone that release carbon dioxide, anaerobically digestedpaper and/or paper products, and stranded well gas. Reactors processingthe gases provided from such sites, and/or other sites, require heat tofacilitate the non-combustion reaction, dissociation, and/or hydrolyticreactions. The necessary heat may be obtained in whole or in part fromgeothermal sources. Representative techniques for providing geothermalenergy to a TCP reactor of a TCP reaction system are described belowwith reference to FIGS. 2A-4.

FIG. 2A is a partially schematic, cross-sectional elevation view of aTCP reactor 226 that sources and/or receives heat and/or reactants froma subterranean geothermal source 200. In this representative embodiment,the geothermal source is located below (e.g., approximately 1.5 milesbelow) the local surface 202. In this embodiment, the geothermal source200 may include a zone such as an aquifer that is at a temperature of150-700° F. due to thermal communication between the aquifer and a hotinterior zone of the earth and/or a tectonic plate boundary (not shown).In other embodiments, the geothermal source 200 can include drysubterranean rock, a sufficiently hot subterranean surface, and/or asubterranean region located at or near an active volcanic region.

In a representative embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2A, ageothermally-heated TCP reactor system 201 is positioned near thegeothermal source 200 and receives heat from the geothermal source 200via a working fluid transfer system 260. A bore tube 204 in the ground206 over the geothermal source 200 extends from a bore top 208 at ornear the surface 202 to a bore zone 210 (e.g., a bottom of the bore tube204) at or near the geothermal source 200. The bore tube 204 can beplaced by known drilling techniques, and in some embodiments includes apre-existing well (e.g., an oil well or water well). The working fluidtransfer system 260 can include a heating pipe 212 having a downflowportion 214 and an upflow portion 216 (e.g., adjacent or annularlypositioned relative to each other) that can be disposed in the bore tube204 and that contain a working fluid 218. In a particular embodiment,the working fluid 218 includes water, and in other embodiments, theworking fluid 218 includes other suitable heat transfer media (e.g.,Therminol®, propane, butane, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, etc.), asdiscussed further below with reference to FIG. 4. In any of theseembodiments, the working fluid 218 can travel downward as a relativelydense fluid and then return in a closed loop via a return portion 222 ofthe heating pipe 212 as a lower density fluid, e.g., a vapor or a gas.In certain embodiments, the working fluid 218 can circulate downward bygravitational force and upward as a vapor or gas that fills theavailable space. In other embodiments, the working fluid 218 circulatesunder the power of a pump 220 (e.g., a reversible pump). In certainembodiments, the pump 220 drives the working fluid 218 through theheating pipe 212 so as to deliver cooled working fluid 218 to thegeothermal source 200 and return heated working fluid 218 to the surface202.

In particular embodiments, the pump 220 can be a reversible pump and canaccordingly operate in (at least) two modes: a first mode in whichenergy is supplied to the pump 220 to drive the working fluid 218, and asecond mode in which the working fluid 218 drives the pump 220, whichcan in turn extract energy from the working fluid via a generator and/orother suitable device. The extracted energy can be provided to thereactor 226 and/or other system components, as indicated by arrow 224 c.Accordingly, the working fluid can be selected to have chemical and/orphysical properties that are suitable for dual-mode operation. Otheroverall system parameters can also be selected to enhance this function.For example, the heat transfer rate of the working fluid 218 (includingthe temperature and pressure it develops) and/or the position of thereturn portion 222 within the geothermal formation can be selected basedat least in part on the dual-mode function of the working fluid. Inparticular embodiments for which the working fluid 218 operates in anopen loop manner (described further below with reference to FIGS. 3 and4), the substance extraction characteristics of the working fluid arealso considered.

The pump 220 (and/or vapor pressure) directs the returned, heatedworking fluid 218 to the TCP reactor 226, as indicated by arrow 224 a.The working fluid 218 transfers heat to the TCP reactor 226 via a firstheat exchanger 240 and returns to the heating pipe 212 via the pump 220,as indicated by arrow 224 b. In another embodiment, the working fluid218 can bypass the pump 220, as indicated by arrow 224 d. In particularembodiments, the heat exchanger 240 can include a surface that ispermeable to the working fluid 218. This arrangement can be employedwhen the working fluid 218 is a suitable reactant, as well as a heatconveyor. For example, when the heat transfer fluid is water, it canparticipate in the reaction described above with reference to Equation(2) and FIG. 1. In further particular embodiments, the heat supplied tothe TCP reactor 226 by the working fluid 218 can be supplemented byother heat sources, e.g., solar heat, electric heat, and/or heat fromcombustion products. In yet a further particular embodiment, a heat pump(described in further detail later) can be used to elevate thetemperature of the working fluid. The TCP reactor 226 also receives areactant substance 241 from a reactant source 228. In the representativeembodiment shown in FIG. 2A, the reactant source 228 is a storage tankcontaining the reactant substance 241, and the reactant substance 241includes a substance such as a hydrocarbon (e.g., crop or animal waste,garbage, landfill waste, methane, ethane, propane, butane or parafin).As illustrated, the reactant substance 241 is provided to the TCPreactor 226 via a pipe or other conduit 230 that is routed through asecond heat exchanger 242 to preheat the reactant substance 241 beforeit enters the TCP reactor 226. Heat is provided to the reactantsubstance 241 by the products 233 produced at the reactor 226.Accordingly, the products 233 exit the TCP reactor 226 and pass throughthe second heat exchanger 242 via another pipe or conduit 231 (e.g., ina counterflow arrangement) to a products collector 232. In therepresentative embodiment of FIG. 2A, the reaction products are hydrogenand carbon, and the products collector for the hydrogen is a storagetank. The hydrogen and carbon (or other donor dissociated from thereactant substance 241 at the reactor 226) can be removed from thereactor 226 together and then separated, or they can be removedseparately. In either embodiment, one or both products can transfer heatto the incoming reactant substance 241 via one or more heat exchangers242. Additional sources of heat and reactant substances provided to theTCP reactor 226, and additional products of the TCP reactor 226, aredescribed in the '208 application.

The components of the overall system 201, including the reactor 226, canbe controlled by a controller 190. Accordingly, the controller 190 canreceive automatic or manual inputs 191 from sensors, transducers,detectors and operators. The controller 190 can be programmed withinstructions that, when executed, issue commands or outputs 192 thatdirect the functions, settings, operating parameters, and/or states ofthe components of the system 201 to produce the desired outputs.

In at least some areas, significant advantages can be developed fromnatural or artificial height differences. FIG. 2B shows a portion 201 aof a geothermally-heated TCP reactor system, configured to provide adense water vapor or liquid 211 with a potential energy “head” above amotor-generator 213 disposed near the bottom of the bore tube 204 toproduce power. As illustrated, the bore tube 204 extends from thesurface 202 to the geothermal heat source 200. The bore tube 204 isprovided with an insulated conduit 215 to maintain a desired temperaturewithin passages 217 for vapor or gas transport from the geothermalsource 200. The gases can be directed through a valve 227 to anexpansion motor 229 (e.g., a turbine which is coupled to a load, e.g., apump or a generator 231). The upper portion of the passage 217 can alsocommunicate (via the valve 227) with one or more TCP reactors 226 whichcan be generally similar to those described above with regard to FIG.2A. Hot gases or vapors produced by the reactor 226 can be directed tothe expansion motor 229, e.g., via an insulated conduit 251. Within thebore tube 204 is a conduit 219 that is coupled with the motor-generator213, e.g., at or near the bottom of the conduit 204. The conduit 219 canbe disposed within the outer insulated conduit 215 in a concentricarrangement. At or near the top of the conduit 219 is a condenser orradiator 221 that is disposed at an elevated site 223, such as a towerfor a wind turbine 225, a tall building, or a mountain.

In operation, the liquid 211 is vaporized by the heat provided by thegeothermal source 200, and the vapor rises upwards through the passage217 to the TCP reactor 226 via the valve 227. The valve 227 iscontrolled to provide the vapor to the TCP reactor 226 as needed, and/orto provide the vapor to the expansion motor (e.g., turbine) 229, and thegenerator 231. The generator 231 can provide power to the overallsystem. An exit 235 from the expansion motor 229 directs the exitingfluid (e.g., expanded vapors or gases) to the condenser or radiator 221where it condenses to a liquid and is returned via the conduit 219 tothe bottom of the bore tube 204 to repeat the cycle. The fluids (e.g.,liquids) descending through the conduit 219 have a liquid head due tothe elevation of the condenser 221, which can be extracted as work bythe motor/generator 213. As described previously, the motor-generator213 can be a reversible motor-generator or pump that can be operated asa motor-generator to produce electricity in one mode, and can beoperated as a pump in another mode.

FIG. 2C illustrates an elevated site 223 having the form of a tallbuilding (optionally including a greenhouse 253), with the conduit 219extending from the geothermal heat source 200 to the condenser orradiator 221 positioned on the elevated site 223. Heat transferred fromthe condenser 221 can be used to warm crops at the greenhouse 253, e.g.,to extend the local growing season and/or increase productivity. FIG. 2Dillustrates an elevated site 223 having the form of a tower (e.g., awind turbine tower), with the conduit 219 extending from the geothermalheat source 200 to the condenser or radiator 221 carried by the tower.FIG. 2E illustrates an elevated site 223 having a suitable form, such asan offshore oil platform, with the conduit 219 extending from asubmerged geothermal heat source 200 beneath the ocean bottom 237 to thecondenser or radiator 221 positioned at an elevation on the platform at,near or above sea level 239. FIG. 2F illustrates an elevated site 223having a suitable form, such as an electrical tower. In otherembodiments, the elevated site 223 can be a natural formation, such as ahill or mountain. As can be appreciated, the elevated sites 223 shown inFIGS. 2C, 2D, 2E, and 2F each include the conduit 215 communicating withone or more TCP reactors 226 similar to those shown in the embodimentillustrated in FIGS. 2A and 2B, and can in at least some embodimentsinclude a solar collector or a wind turbine 225 to provide additionalpower to the geothermally-heated TCP reactor system 201 illustrated inFIG. 2A.

FIG. 3 is a partially schematic illustration of another representativeembodiment of a geothermally-heated TCP reactor system 301 in which aworking fluid 318 is directed through a geo-formation via an open looparrangement. For purposes of illustration, several of the valves (e.g.,check valves) and other fluid control components used to control and/orregulate the flow of the working fluid 318 and/or other constituents arenot shown in FIG. 3. The reactor system 301 can include a reactor 326positioned to utilize a geothermal source 300 generally similar to thegeothermal source 200 shown in FIG. 2A. In a representative embodimentshown in FIG. 3, a downflow pipe 312 extends through a bore in theground 306 from the surface 302 to an entry portion 315 of thegeothermal source 300. An upflow pipe 313 can be spaced apart from thedownflow pipe 312 and can extend through a (different) bore in theground 306 from the surface 302 to an exit portion 317 of the geothermalsource 300. A geo-formation open flow path 319 is located between theentrance and exit portions 315, 317. The working fluid 318 (e.g., water,carbon dioxide or ammonia) passes along the flow path 319 when thegeothermally-heated TCP reactor system 301 is operational. Accordingly,the downflow and upflow pipes 312, 313 and the flowpath 319 in partdefine an at least partially open loop. The working fluid 318 circulatesaround the loop through the geothermal source 300 to collect thermalenergy and return the thermal energy to the reactor 326. Optionally, incertain embodiments the working fluid 318 can pass through one or morework extraction devices 322, 344, and 380 (e.g., turbines,turbo-generators, reversible pumps), that extract energy from theworking fluid and provide the energy (e.g., in the form of electrical orshaft power) to the reactor 326.

In particular embodiments, the working fluid 318 intermixes withmaterials located at the geothermal source 300. Accordingly, the workingfluid 318 may carry with it materials that can serve as a donorsubstance (e.g., a reactant) in the TCP reactor 326. In a representativeembodiment, the material at the geothermal source 300 is petroleum froman oil or natural gas well or an oil deposit, with the hydrocarbons ofthe petroleum being carried by the working fluid 318 to the TCP reactorfor processing as a donor substance.

In other embodiments, the working fluid can release and carry otherconstituents from the geothermal source 300 and/or the proximate area,and can be particularly selected to release and carry such constituents.For example, hydrogen can be used as the working fluid and, due to itsrelatively high specific heat and low viscosity, can mobilize (e.g.,release and carry) constituents that other working fluids (e.g., steam)may not. In a particular embodiment, hydrogen can be delivered to thegeothermal source 300 and/or regions adjacent to the geothermal source300, and can release and carry sulfur or other constituents. The sulfurcan subsequently be retrieved (e.g., separated) from the working fluidand used for any of a number of suitable purposes. In anotherembodiment, the working fluid can include carbon dioxide, which canrelease and carry metals. Representative metals include carboneals,cobalt, and/or nickel. In a particular embodiment, a working fluidcontaining carbon dioxide and/or carbon monoxide can react undergroundwith nickel to form Ni₅CO which is then brought to the surface. At thesurface, the nickel can be separated from the nickel-carbon compound andthe carbon monoxide can be used as fuel. For example, the carbonmonoxide can be further oxidized to form carbon dioxide, which can becombined with hydrogen to produce methanol or another suitable fuel. Instill further embodiments, a carbon compound can be combined with ironlocated at the geothermal source 300 to produce iron carbonate, which isalso removed from the geothermal source 300 and processed to remove theiron for other purposes. Other suitable metals, in addition to sulfur,nickel, iron, and cobalt include zinc and/or rare earth metals such assamarium and neodymium.

The system 301 can include a separator 330 that separates metals and/orother retrieved constituents from the working fluid e.g., before theworking fluid enters the reactor 326. In other embodiments, the reactor326 can be used to separate such constituents. In any of theseembodiments, the working fluid can be used not only to retrieve energyfrom a geothermal source, but to retrieve minerals, metals, and/or othersuitable constituents without the need for strip mining and/or othermore destructive mining processes.

The working fluid 318 can be stored in a reservoir 320. At the reservoir320, the working fluid 318 can be a vapor or liquid that isunpressurized and relatively cool as compared to the working fluid 318within the upflow pipe 313. The reservoir 320 can have a higherelevation than an upper end 313 a of the upflow pipe 313, which createsa pressure head that forces the working fluid 318 downward in thedownflow pipe 312, which can include one or more check valves. The headcan be supplemented with additional pressure provided by a reversiblemotor-generator or pump 344 if the additional pressure is necessary todrive the working fluid 318 downward. Accordingly, one or more pumps 344can be located near an upper end 312 a of the downflow pipe 312, and/orat other points along the working fluid loop.

In particular embodiments, the system 301 can also include a workingfluid collector or buffer tank 321 that is located at the surface 302and that collects and contains pressurized working fluid 318 that isrelatively hot as compared to the working fluid 318 within downflow pipe312. The working fluid 318 in the buffer tank 321 is typicallypressurized as a result of the delivery head and the heat the workingfluid 318 gains from the geothermal source 300, which can be sufficientto vaporize the working fluid 318. The elevated temperature and pressurein the buffer tank 321 are also in part due to the head pressure createdby the elevation of the reservoir 320 relative to the buffer tank 321.To the extent the working fluid 318 in the buffer tank 321 has excesspressure, the excess can be provided to run a work extraction device 322(e.g., a mixed-phase compatible turbine that operates a generator 323)which provides power to the TCP reactor system 301. In otherembodiments, heat remaining in the expanded working fluid exiting thework extraction device 322 can be directed to the reactor 326, and/orheat can be provided from the buffer tank 321 directly to the reactor326 (bypassing the work extraction device 322) as described below.

As shown in FIG. 3, the pressurized working fluid 318 in the buffer tank321 is provided to the TCP reactor 326 to heat the reactor 326 and, inat least some cases provide a reactant to the reactor 326. The heat isconveyed to the TCP reactor 326 directing the working fluid 318 througha heat exchanger in the TCP reactor 326, as discussed above withreference to FIG. 2A. The working fluid 318 can then be returned up tothe higher elevation reservoir 320 via one or more conduits or channels329 b. If, as a result of losing heat in the reactor 326, the workingfluid 318 does not have enough energy to make the elevation change, theworking fluid 318 can enter a separator or evaporator 327 after exitingthe reactor 326. The working fluid 318 may be separated into a liquidportion and a gas or vapor portion that expands within the evaporator327, with the liquid portion provided to a first channel 329 a which mayinclude one or more check valves and the gas or vapor portion providedto a second channel 329 b which may also include one or more checkvalves. The second channel 329 b delivers the vaporous working fluid 318to a condenser 331. At the condenser 331, the working fluid 318 coolsand condenses into a denser substance (e.g., a liquid) before enteringthe reservoir 320. The evaporator 327 and the second channel 329 b maybe heated to transform/maintain the working fluid 318 as a gas. In arepresentative embodiment, the evaporator 327 and/or the second channel329 b are heated by a solar concentrator and/or are colored black and/orinclude a selective surface to absorb and trap solar radiation and heatthe working fluid 318.

As discussed above with reference to FIG. 2A, the TCP reactor 326 may beprovided with supplemental heat by other heating sources, e.g., solar,wind, surplus electricity, and/or combustion heat sources. The TCPreactor 326 receives one or more reactant substances from one or morereactant sources 328. In a particular embodiment, the reactant source328 is a storage tank, and the reactant substance is a hydrocarbon(e.g., methane or another petroleum substance). The reactant substancemay be preheated by a heat exchanger that carries the working fluid 318.Reaction products exit the TCP reactor and are conveyed to a productscollector 332. In the representative embodiment of FIG. 3, the reactionproducts may include hydrogen and carbon, and the products collector forthe hydrogen is a storage tank. As discussed above with reference toFIG. 2A, any of the reaction products can also transfer heat to theincoming reactant substance via one or more heat exchangers. Any of theforegoing operations can be controlled by a controller, e.g., acontroller similar to the controller 190 described above with referenceto FIG. 2A.

FIG. 4 is a partially schematic illustration of another representativeembodiment of a geothermally-heated TCP reactor system 401 positionednear a geothermal source 400 and configured to synthesize varioussubstances, including a non-carbon compound, e.g., ammonia. In thisembodiment, the geothermal source includes dry subterranean rock withrelatively little or no water. A downflow pipe 412 (which may includeone or more check valves) extends through a bore in the ground 406 fromthe surface 402 to an entrance portion 415 of the geothermal source 400,and an upflow pipe 413 extends through a bore in the ground 406 from thesurface 402 to an exit portion 417 of the geothermal source 400. Aflowpath 419 is positioned between the entrance and exit portions 415,417, and a working fluid 418 (e.g., water, methanol, propane, orammonia) passes along the flowpath 419 when the geothermally-heated TCPreactor system 401 is operational. The downflow and upflow pipes 412,413 and the flowpath 419 define at least in part an open loop throughwhich the working fluid 418 circulates through the geothermal source400.

The system 401 can include a reservoir 420 that is located at, above ornear the surface 402 and that contains unpressurized working fluid 418that is relatively cool compared to the working fluid 418 within theupflow pipe 413. The reservoir 420 can be coupled to a reversiblemotor-generator or pump 409 that produces work or creates a pressurehead driving the working fluid 418 downward in the downflow pipe 412. Abuffer tank 421 contains pressurized working fluid 418 that isrelatively hot as compared to the working fluid 418 within downflow pipe412. The working fluid 418 in the buffer tank 421 is pressurized as aresult of receiving heat from the geothermal source 400 and/or as aresult of pressure applied by the head in the downflow pipe 412 and/orby the pump 409.

As shown in FIG. 4, the pressurized working fluid 418 in the buffer tank421 is provided to a TCP reactor 426 to heat the reactor. For example, aportion of the working fluid 418 can be routed through a turbine 422,which drives a load such as generator 423, and then to the TCP reactor426 via a relatively low-pressure loop 427 exiting the turbine 422. Thegenerator 423 provides power to the TCP reactor system 401. The workingfluid 418 can also be routed through the TCP reactor 426 via a pump 440that drives the working fluid 418 from the buffer tank 421 to the TCPreactor 426 and back to the buffer tank 421 in a higher pressure returnloop 429. The high pressure loop 429 can be provided in addition to orin lieu of the low pressure loop 427. A storage tank 425 can storeexcess working fluid 418. Similar to embodiments described above withreference to FIG. 2A, the TCP reactor 426 of FIG. 4 may be provided withsupplemental heat by other heat sources, such as solar, electric, and/orcombustion heat.

The TCP reactor 426 receives a reactant substance from a reactant source428 (e.g., a storage tank). In a particular embodiment, the reactantsubstance is a hydrocarbon and/or includes water as a hydrogen donor.Accordingly, the reactor 426 dissociates the hydrocarbon into carbon andhydrogen, and/or the water into hydrogen and oxygen, and/or produces acompound of oxygen. The reactant substance may be preheated by theworking fluid 418 supplied by buffer tank 421 or by routing the reactantsubstance through a heat exchanger (not shown) coupled to the buffertank 421. The reaction products (e.g., hydrogen and oxygen or a compoundof oxygen) exit the TCP reactor 426 and can preheat the incomingreactant substance, as discussed above with reference to FIG. 2A. In therepresentative embodiment of FIG. 4, the oxygen (or oxygen compound)portion of the reaction product is conveyed to an oxygen storage tank430 or vented from the TCP reactor system 401, and the hydrogen isconveyed to a synthesizer 432. At the synthesizer 432, the hydrogen iscombined with nitrogen by processes that can include but are not limitedto catalytic processes or plasma synthesis using a spark or coronaprocess. Any of these processes can produce ammonia which is conveyed tothe low-pressure line 444 and/or to a storage tank 433. The nitrogen canbe produced by an engine that depletes oxygen from air (e.g. forproduction of water or carbon dioxide) and/or by a separator or membrane434 that removes oxygen from air received from a compressor 436.

FIG. 5 is a partially schematic illustration of a system or subsystem500 that can be used to transport fluids over a distance D, using phasechange and an elevation gain E to facilitate the fluid transport.Accordingly, this arrangement can be used to transport fluids between,within, and/or among the geothermal sources and/or reactors describedabove. In a particular embodiment, the system 500 transports fluids froma first location 501 a to a second location 501 b. The first location501 a can include first location components 520 a, and the secondlocation 501 b can include second location components 520 b. Thecomponents at each location can include pumps, chemical reactors,expanders, work extraction devices, and/or other elements used tofacilitate transporting and/or using the fluid. In particularembodiments, arrangements having these configurations can be used inplace of the first and second channels 329 a, 329 b (shown in FIG. 3) totransport a working fluid used to capture geothermal energy.Accordingly, the first location 501 a can correspond to a site where agas-phase working fluid is removed from the ground (e.g., the upper end313 a of the upflow pipe 313 shown in FIG. 3), and the second location501 b can correspond to the upper end 312 a of the downflow pipe 312shown in FIG. 3.

As shown in FIG. 5, an arrangement of conduits or other fluidconveyances transports a fluid (e.g., a working fluid) from the firstlocation 501 a to the second location 501 b, via the elevation gain E.For purposes of illustration, the first and second locations 501 a, 501b are shown at the same elevation. In other embodiments, the first andsecond locations 501 a, 501 b can be at different elevations, but ingeneral, have an intermediate location 501 c positioned between them.Accordingly, the conduits can include a first conduit portion 510 a thatconnects the first location 501 a with an intermediate location 501 chaving an elevation greater than that of the first location 501 a andthe second location 501 b. The conduits can further include a secondconduit portion 510 b connected between the intermediate location 501 cand the second location 501 b. A gaseous fluid at the first location 501a can be stored in and/or expand and rise through the first conduitportion 510 a to the intermediate location 501 c, thus traveling over aportion of the distance D separating the first and second locations 501a, 501 b. At the intermediate location 501 c, one or more intermediatelocation components (e.g., phase change devices) 520 c can be used tochange the phase of the fluid from vapor to liquid, thus allowing thefluid to flow to the second location 501 b via the second conduitportion 510 b under the force of gravity. The phase change devices 520 ccan include an expander 521 that cools the fluid sufficiently tocondense it, and/or a compressor that compresses the vapor to condenseit. In particular embodiments, the phase change devices 502 and/or otherdevices can extract energy from the fluid, in addition to changing thephase of the fluid. For example, the fluid can be expanded through aturbine. Other intermediate location components 520 c, in addition to orin lieu of the expander and/or compressor can include a heat exchanger522 (e.g., a condenser) that dissipates heat from the fluid to theenvironment, causing it to cool and condense. In still a furtherembodiment, the intermediate location components 520 c can include amixer 523 that introduces another constituent to the fluid passingthrough the intermediate location 501 c. For example, gaseous hydrogencan travel from the first location 501 a to the intermediate location501 c and at the intermediate location 501 c, can be combined withnitrogen to form ammonia. The liquid ammonia can then flow downhill fromthe intermediate location 501 c to the second location 501 b. At thesecond location 501 b, the ammonia can be reintroduced as a workingfluid to the geothermal source. In particular embodiments, the ammoniacan be expanded, e.g., through a gas turbine to provide additionalpower. In other embodiments, the second location 501 b can include othercomponents (e.g., liquid-powered turbines) that extract the “head”energy from the fluid resulting from elevation drop from theintermediate location 501 c to the second location 501 b. Otherrepresentative combinations, without limitation, include combininghydrogen with chlorine to form HCl, combining hydrogen with oxygen toform water, combining hydrogen with SO2 to form H2SO2 and combininghydrogen with nitrogen to form ammonia.

In yet a further embodiment, the mixer 523 can be replaced with aseparator, e.g., to separate constituents brought up by the workingfluid as it passes through the geothermal source 300 (FIG. 3). Whileparticular embodiments of the system 500 were described above in thecontext of the open loop working fluid arrangement show in FIG. 3, thesystem can also be applied in the context of a closed loop system, e.g.,as shown in FIGS. 2A-2F.

Systems of the type shown in FIG. 5 can be used in any of a variety ofcontexts, and can be combined to provide still further benefits. Forexample, in some embodiments, the heat exchanger 522 can be integratedwith the first conduit portion 510 a and/or the second conduit portion510 b. For example, the conduit portion(s) can be fitted with coolingfins or other features that cool the fluid inside without the need for aseparate heat exchanger. Several systems of the type shown in FIG. 5 canbe connected in series to increase the distance over which the fluid istransported. While a particular example was described above in thecontext of hydrogen, with an optional addition of carbon to producemethanol, in other embodiments, the system can be used to transportother fluids, with or without constituent mixing at the intermediatelocation 501 c.

In representative embodiments, the elevation gain E can have a value ofat least 50 feet. In particular embodiments, the elevation gain can havea value of at least 500 feet, at least 1,000 feet, at least 2,000 feetor at least 3,000 feet. In any of these embodiments, it is expected thatthe increase in elevation allows the liquefied fluid to flow “downhill”to the second location 501 b under the force of gravity. In operation,the first conduit portion 510 a can be filled with fluid at an elevatedpressure, e.g., 100 psi. Accordingly, the first conduit portion 510 acan operate as a reservoir or storage site for the fluid, in addition toa fluid transport device. As fluid is drawn off the first conduitportion 510 a for delivery to the second location 501 b (which may be onan intermittent basis, depending upon need), the first locationcomponents 520 a replenish the supply of liquid in the first conduitportion 510 a.

4. Further Representative Reactors

The following sections describe representative reactors and associatedsystems that may be used alone or in any of a variety of suitablecombinations for carrying out one or more of the foregoing processesdescribed above with reference to FIGS. 1-4. In particular, any suitablecomponent of the systems described in the following sections may replaceor supplement a suitable component described in the foregoing sections.

In some embodiments, the reactants may be obtained on a local scale, thereactions may be conducted on a local scale, and the products may beused on a local scale to produce a localized result. In otherembodiments, the reactants, reactions, products and overall effect ofthe process can have a much larger effect. For example, the technologycan have continental and/or extra-continental scope. In particularembodiments, the technology can be deployed to preserve vast regions ofpermafrost, on a continental scale, and or preserve ecosystems locatedoffshore from the preserved areas. In other embodiments, the technologycan be deployed offshore to produce effects over large tracts of oceanwaters. In still further, embodiments, the technology can be deployed onmobile systems that convey the benefits of the technology to a widerange of areas around the globe.

In general, the disclosed reactors dissociate, reform and/or respeciatea donor material (reactant) into multiple constituents (e.g., a firstconstituent and a second constituent). Particular aspects of therepresentative reactors described below are described in the context ofspecific reactants and products, e.g., a hydrogen and carbon bearingdonor, a hydrogen-bearing product or constituent, and a carbon-bearingproduct or constituent. In certain other embodiments of the disclosedtechnology, the same or similar reactors may be used to process otherreactants and/or form other products. For example, non-hydrogenfeedstock materials (reactants) are used in at least some embodiments.In particular examples, sulfur dioxide can be processed in anon-combustion thermal reactor to produce sulfur and oxygen, and/orcarbon dioxide can be processed to produce carbon and oxygen. In many ofthese embodiments, the resulting dissociation products can include astructural building block and/or a hydrogen-based fuel or otherdissociated constituent. The structural building block includescompositions that may be further processed to produce architecturalconstructs. For example, the structural building blocks can includecompounds or molecules resulting from the dissociation process and caninclude carbon, various organics (e.g. methyl, ethyl, or butyl groups orvarious alkenes), boron, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, halogens,and/or transition metals. In many applications the building blockelement does not include hydrogen. In a specific example, methane isdissociated to form hydrogen (or another hydrogen-bearing constituent)and carbon and/or carbon dioxide and/or carbon monoxide (structuralbuilding blocks). The carbon and/or carbon dioxide and/or carbonmonoxide can be further processed to form polymers, graphene, carbonfiber, and/or another architectural construct. The architecturalconstruct can include a self-organized structure (e.g., a crystal)formed from any of a variety of suitable elements, including theelements described above (carbon, nitrogen, boron, silicon, sulfur,and/or transition metals). In any of these embodiments, thearchitectural construct can form durable goods, e.g., graphene or carboncomposites, and/or other structures.

Many embodiments are described in the context of hydrocarbons, e.g.,methane. In other embodiments, suitable hydrogen-bearing feedstocks(e.g., reactants) include boranes (e.g., diborane), silanes (e.g.,monosilane), nitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., ammonia), sulfides(e.g., hydrogen sulfide), alcohols (e.g., methanol), alkyl halides(e.g., carbon tetrachloride), aryl halides (e.g., chlorobenzene), andhydrogen halides (e.g., hydrochloric acid), among others. For example,silane can be thermally decomposed to form hydrogen as a gaseous productand silicon as a non-gaseous product. When the non-gaseous productincludes silicon, the silicon can be reacted with nitrogen (e.g., fromair) or with a halogen gas (e.g., recycled from a separate industrialprocess) to form useful materials, such as silicon nitride (e.g., as astructural material) or a silicon halide (e.g., as a non-structuralmaterial). In other embodiments, the feedstock material can be reactedto form only gaseous products or only non-gaseous products. For example,suitable hydrogen halides can be thermally decomposed to form acombination of hydrogen and halogen gas as the gaseous product with noaccompanying non-gaseous product. In some embodiments, the gaseousproduct can include a gaseous fuel (e.g., hydrogen) and/or thenon-gaseous product can include an elemental material (e.g., carbon orsilicon). In some embodiments, the system can be configured for use inclose proximity to a suitable source of the feedstock material. Forexample, the system can be configured for use near landfills and forprocessing methane that would otherwise be flared or released into theatmosphere. In other embodiments, the system can be configured forprocessing stranded well gas at oil fields, methane hydrates from theocean floors or permafrost sources, and/or other feedstock materials 180that would otherwise be wasted.

In some embodiments, the non-gaseous product can be further processed ina reactor. For example, the non-gaseous product can be a structuralbuilding block that can be further processed in the reactor to produce astructural material, e.g., a ceramic, a carbon structure, a polymericstructure, a film, a fiber (e.g., a carbon fiber or a silicon fiber), ora filter. Highly pure forms of the non-gaseous product can be especiallywell suited for forming semiconductor devices, photo-optical sensors,and filaments for optical transmission, among other products. Thenon-gaseous product can also be used without further processing and/orcan be reacted to form materials useful for non-structural applications.

In other embodiments, the carbon can be used as a structural material orused as a reactant for producing a structural material. For example, thecarbon can be a reactant for extracting silicon from silica as shown inEquations R1 and/or R2 below.

C+SiO₂→CO₂+Si  Equation R1

2C+SiO₂→2CO+Si  Equation R2

Silicon from the reactions shown in Equations R1 and R2 or as thenon-gaseous product may be formed, for example, in a granular (e.g.,powder) form, which can include controlled amounts of amorphous and/orcrystalline material. For example, the operating temperature of thereactor can be programmed or otherwise controlled to control when,where, and/or whether the silicon is deposited in amorphous orcrystalline form.

In some embodiments, silicon from the system can be reacted to formhalogenated silanes or silicon halides, e.g., SiBrH₃, SiBrFH₂, SiBrH₃,SiBr₃H, SiCl₂H₂, SiBr₄, or SiCl₄, among others. Furthermore, siliconfrom the system may be made into various useful products and materials,such as products that are produced from or based on specialized forms ofsilicon (e.g., fumed silica), silicon-containing organic intermediates,and silicon-containing polymers, among others. Such products can beformed, for example, using suitable processes disclosed in U.S. Pat.Nos. 4,814,155, 4,414,364, 4,243,779, and 4,458,087, which areincorporated herein by reference. Silicon from the system 100 can alsobe used in the production of various substances, such as silicon carbideor silicon nitride, e.g., as shown in Equation R3.

3Si+2N₂→Si₃N₄  Equation R3

Silicon nitride articles can be formed, for example, using siliconpowders that are slip cast, pressure compacted, or injection molded andthen converted into silicon nitride. The resulting articles can havedensity, fatigue, endurance, dielectric, and/or other properties wellsuited for a variety of high-performance applications.Silicon-nitride-based durable goods can be used, for example, inthermally and electrically insulating components that have lowerdensities and can operate at higher operating temperatures than metalalloys typically used in rocket engines, gas turbines, andpositive-displacement combustion engines. Replacing such metal alloys,which typically consume critical supplies of cobalt, nickel, refractorymetals, and rare earths with silicon nitride and/or carbon components,can enable far more cost-effective production of engines, fuel cells,and other equipment.

In addition to forming inorganic materials, the system can form avariety of useful organic materials. For example, the feedstock materialcan include propane or propylene, which can be reacted with ammonia inthe first mode according to the reactions shown in Equations R4 and R5to form acrylonitrile and hydrogen as the gaseous products orelectrolytically disassociated in the second mode to generateelectricity.

C₃H₈+NH₃→CH₂═CH—C≡N+4H₂  Equation R4

CH₃—CH═CH₂+NH₃→CH₂═CH—C≡N+3H₂  Equation R5

Subsequent processing of the gaseous products including acrylonitrilecan include reacting the acrylonitrile to form polymers, rubbers, carbonfiber, and/or other materials well suited for use in durable goods(e.g., equipment to harness solar, wind, moving water, or geothermalenergy). Accordingly, the overall energetics of processing propane orpropylene using the system can be significantly more favorable thansimple combustion. Furthermore, in some cases, processing propane orpropylene using the system can produce little or no harmful pollution(e.g., environmentally released carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, orparticulates) or significantly less harmful pollution relative to simplecombustion.

In some embodiments, one or more chemical reaction products fromoperation of the system can be used to form dielectric materials for usein durable goods. For example, the reaction products can be used to formpolymers (e.g., polyimides, polyetherimides, parylenes, orfluoropolymers) and/or inorganic dielectrics (e.g., silicon dioxide orsilicon nitride) that can incorporated into polymer-basednanodielectrics. Composites of inorganic and organic materials (one orboth of which can be produced by operation of the system) can providerelatively high dielectric and mechanical strengths along withflexibility. Such materials can be well suited for use at a wide rangeof temperatures, such as temperatures ranging from cryogenictemperatures (e.g., about −200° C.) to heat-engine exhaust temperatures(e.g., about 500° C.). In other embodiments, the reaction products canbe used to form thin films of inorganic amorphous carbon, siliconoxynitride, aluminum oxynitride, or other suitable materials. In someembodiments, the system can have dual-beam deposition and/orweb-handling capabilities useful for processing suitable chemicalreaction products (e.g., to form amorphous or crystalline carbon films).

In at least some embodiments, nitrogen can be obtained as a product oran exhaust stream. The nitrogen can be combined with hydrogen to produceammonia and/or can be otherwise processed to form other useful materialssuch as Si₃N₄, AlN, BN, TiN, ZrN, TiCSi₃N₄, and/or suitable sialons.

While any one or more of the following representative reactors andassociated components, devices and methodologies may be used inconjunction with the systems described above, certain reactors may haveparticularly synergistic and/or otherwise beneficial effects in suchembodiments. For example, one or more heat pipes described below underheading 4.3 may be used to transfer fluid and heat between asubterranean heat source and the surface to facilitate dissociation orrespeciation of methane or another hydrogen donor.

4.1 Representative Reactors with Transmissive Surfaces

FIG. R1-1 is a partially schematic illustration of a system 1100 thatincludes a reactor 1110. The reactor 1110 further includes a reactorvessel 1111 that encloses or partially encloses a reaction zone 1112.The reactor vessel 1111 has one or more transmissive surfaces positionedto facilitate the chemical reaction taking place within the reactionzone 1112. In a representative example, the reactor vessel 1111 receivesa hydrogen donor provided by a donor source 1130 to a donor entry port1113. For example, the hydrogen donor can include a nitrogenous compoundsuch as ammonia or a compound containing carbon and hydrogen such asmethane or another hydrocarbon. The hydrogen donor can be suitablyfiltered before entering the reaction zone 1112 to remove contaminants,e.g., sulfur. A donor distributor or manifold 1115 within the reactorvessel 1111 disperses or distributes the hydrogen donor into thereaction zone 1112. The reactor vessel 1111 also receives an oxygendonor such as an alcohol or steam from a steam/water source 1140 via asteam entry port 1114. A steam distributor 1116 in the reactor vessel1111 distributes the steam into the reaction zone 1112. The reactorvessel 1111 can further include a heater 1123 that supplies heat to thereaction zone 1112 to facilitate endothermic reactions. Such reactionscan include dissociating a compound such as a nitrogenous compound, or acompound containing hydrogen and carbon such as methane or anotherhydrocarbon into hydrogen or a hydrogen compound, and carbon or a carboncompound. The products of the reaction exit the reactor vessel 1111 viaan exit port 1117 and are collected at a reaction product collector 1160a.

The system 1100 can further include a source 1150 of radiant energyand/or additional reactants, which provides constituents to a passage1118 within the reactor vessel 1111. For example, the radiantenergy/reactant source 1150 can include a combustion chamber 1151 thatprovides hot combustion products 1152 to the passage 1118, as indicatedby arrow A. A combustion products collector 1160 b collects combustionproducts exiting the reactor vessel 1111 for recycling and/or otheruses. In a particular embodiment, the combustion products 1152 caninclude carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapor, and otherconstituents. One or more transmissive surfaces 1119 are positionedbetween the reaction zone 1112 (which can be disposed annularly aroundthe passage 1118) and an interior region 1120 of the passage 1118. Thetransmissive surface 1119 can accordingly allow radiant energy and/or achemical constituent to pass radially outwardly from the passage 1118into the reaction zone 1112, as indicated by arrows B. By delivering theradiant energy and/or chemical constituent(s) provided by the flow ofcombustion products 1152, the system 1100 can enhance the reactiontaking place in the reaction zone 1112, for example, by increasing thereaction zone temperature and/or pressure, and therefore the reactionrate, and/or the thermodynamic efficiency of the reaction. Similarly, achemical constituent such as water or steam can be recycled or otherwiseadded from the passage 1118 to replace water or steam that is consumedin the reaction zone 1112. In a particular aspect of this embodiment,the combustion products and/or other constituents provided by the source1150 can be waste products from another chemical process (e.g., aninternal combustion process). Accordingly, the foregoing process canrecycle or reuse energy and/or constituents that would otherwise bewasted, in addition to facilitating the reaction at the reaction zone1112.

The composition and structure of the transmissive surface 1119 can beselected to allow radiant energy to readily pass from the interiorregion 1120 of the passage 1118 to the reaction zone 1112. For example,the transmissive surface 1119 can include glass or another material thatis transparent or at least partially transparent to infrared energyand/or radiant energy at other wavelengths that are useful forfacilitating the reaction in the reaction zone 1112. In many cases, theradiant energy is present in the combustion product 1152 as an inherentresult of the combustion process. In other embodiments, an operator canintroduce additives into the stream of combustion products 1152 toincrease the amount of energy extracted from the stream and delivered tothe reaction zone 1112 in the form of radiant energy. For example, thecombustion products 1152 can be seeded with sodium, potassium, and/ormagnesium, which can absorb energy from the combustion products 1152 andradiate the energy outwardly through the transmissive surface 1119. Inparticular embodiments, the walls of the reaction zone 1112 can be darkand/or can have other treatments that facilitate drawing radiant energyinto the reaction zone 1112. However, it is also generally desirable toavoid forming particulates and/or tars, which may be more likely to formon dark surfaces. Accordingly, the temperature on the reaction zone 1112and the level of darkness can be controlled/selected to produce or toprevent tar/particulate formation.

In particular embodiments, the process performed at the reaction zoneincludes a conditioning process to produce darkened radiation receiverzones, for example, by initially providing heat to particular regions ofthe reaction zone 1112. After these zones have been heated sufficientlyto cause dissociation, a small amount of a hydrogen donor containingcarbon is introduced to cause carbon deposition or deposition ofcarbon-rich material. Such operations may be repeated as needed torestore darkened zones as desired.

In another particular aspect of this embodiment, the process can furtherincludes preventing undesirable solids or liquids, such as particlesand/or tars produced by dissociation of carbon donors, from forming atcertain areas and/or blocking passageways including the entry port 1113and the distributor 1115. This can be accomplished by supplying heatfrom the heater 1123 and/or the transmissive surface 1119 to an oxygendonor (such as steam) to heat the oxygen donor. When the oxygen donor isheated sufficiently, it can supply the required endothermic heat andreact with the carbon donor without allowing particles or tar to beformed. For example, a carbon donor such as methane or another compoundcontaining carbon and hydrogen receives heat from steam to form carbonmonoxide and hydrogen and thus avoids forming of undesirable particlesand/or tar.

As noted above, the combustion products 1152 can include steam and/orother constituents that may serve as reactants in the reaction zone1112. Accordingly, the transmissive surface 1119 can be manufactured toselectively allow such constituents into the reaction zone 1112, inaddition to or in lieu of admitting radiant energy into the reactionzone 1112. In a particular embodiment, the transmissive surface 1119 canbe formed from a carbon crystal structure, for example, a layeredgraphene structure. The carbon-based crystal structure can includespacings (e.g., between parallel layers oriented transverse to the flowdirection A) that are deliberately selected to allow water molecules topass through. At the same time, the spacings can be selected to preventuseful reaction products produced in the reaction zone 1112 from passingout of the reaction zone. Suitable structures and associated methods arefurther disclosed in pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/857,228titled “ARCHITECTURAL CONSTRUCT HAVING FOR EXAMPLE A PLURALITY OFARCHITECTURAL CRYSTALS” filed Feb. 14, 2011 and incorporated herein byreference. The structure used to form the transmissive surface 1119 canbe carbon-based, as discussed above, and/or can be based on otherelements capable of forming a self-organized structures, or constituentscapable of modifying the surface of 1119 to pass or re-radiateparticular radiation frequencies, and/or block or pass selectedmolecules. Such elements can include transition metals, boron, nitrogen,silicon, and sulfur, among others. In particular embodiments, thetransmissive surface 1119 can include re-radiating materials selected tore-radiate energy at a wavelength that is particularly likely to beabsorbed by one or more reactants in the reaction zone 1112. The wallsof the reaction zone 1112 can include such material treatments inaddition to or in lieu of providing such treatments to the transmissivesurface 1119. Further details of such structures, materials andtreatments are disclosed below in Section 4.2.

The system 1100 can further include a controller 1190 that receivesinput signals 1191 (e.g., from sensors) and provides output signals 1192(e.g., control instructions) based at least in part on the inputs 1191.Accordingly, the controller 1190 can include suitable processor, memoryand I/O capabilities. The controller 1190 can receive signalscorresponding to measured or sensed pressures, temperatures, flow rates,chemical concentrations and/or other suitable parameters, and can issueinstructions controlling reactant delivery rates, pressures andtemperatures, heater activation, valve settings and/or other suitableactively controllable parameters. An operator can provide additionalinputs to modify, adjust and/or override the instructions carried outautonomously by the controller 1190.

One feature of forming the transmissive surface 1119 from graphene orother crystal structures is that it can allow both radiant energy anduseful constituents (e.g., water) to pass into the reaction zone 1112.In a particular embodiment, the spacing between graphene layers can beselected to “squeeze” or otherwise orient water molecules in a mannerthat tends to present the oxygen atom preferentially at the reactionzone 1112. Accordingly, those portions of the reaction that use theoxygen (e.g., oxidation or oxygenation steps) can proceed more readilythan they otherwise would. As a result, this mechanism can provide afurther avenue for facilitating the process of dissociating elements orcompounds from the hydrogen donor and water, (and/or other reactants)and reforming suitable end products.

FIG. R1-2 is a partially schematic, partially cut-away illustration of areactor 1310 that includes a vessel 1311 formed from three annularly(e.g., concentrically) positioned conduits 1322. Accordingly, thereactor 1310 can operate in a continuous flow manner. As used herein,“continuous flow” refers generally to a process in which reactants andproducts can be provided to and removed from the reactor vesselcontinuously without halting the reaction to reload the reaction zonewith reactants. In other embodiments, the reactor 1310 can operate in abatch manner during which reactants are intermittently supplied to thereaction zone and products are intermittently removed from the reactionzone. The three conduits 1322 include a first or inner conduit 1322 a, asecond or intermediate conduit 1322 b, and a third or outer conduit 1322c. The first conduit 1322 a bounds a combustion products passage 1318and accordingly has an interior region 1320 through which the combustionproducts 1152 pass. The first conduit 1322 a has a first transmissivesurface 1319 a through which radiant energy passes in a radially outwarddirection, as indicated by arrows B. In a particular aspect of thisembodiment, the annular region between the first conduit 1322 a and thesecond conduit 1322 b houses a heater 1323, and the annular regionbetween the second conduit 1322 b and the third conduit 1322 c houses areaction zone 1312. The heater 1323 together with the radiant heat fromthe combustion products 1152 provides heat to the reaction zone 1312.Accordingly, the second conduit 1322 b can include a second transmissivesurface 1319 b that allows radiant energy from both the combustionproducts 1152 and the heater 1323 to pass radially outwardly into thereaction zone 1312. In a particular aspect of this embodiment, the firsttransmissive surface 1319 a and the second transmissive surface 1319 bare not transmissible to chemical constituents of the combustionproducts 1152, in order to avoid contact (e.g., corrosive or otherdamaging contact) between the combustion products 1152 and the heater1323. In another embodiment, the heater 1323 can be manufactured (e.g.,with appropriate coatings, treatments, or other features) in a mannerthat protects it from chemical constituents passing through the firstand second transmissive surfaces 1319 a, 1319 b. In still anotherembodiment, the heater 1323 can be positioned outwardly from thereaction zone 1312. In any of these embodiments, the heater 1323 caninclude an electrical resistance heater, an induction heater or anothersuitable device. In at least some instances, the heater 1323 is poweredby combusting a portion of the hydrogen produced in the reaction zone1312. In other embodiments, combustion is performed in the reactoritself, for example, with the second conduit 1322 b serving as a gasmantle for radiating energy at frequencies selected to accelerate thedesired reactions in reaction zone 1312.

In any of the forgoing embodiments, the reaction zone 1312 can house oneor more steam distributors 1316 and one or more hydrogen donordistributors 1315. Each of the distributors 1315, 1316 can include pores1324 and/or other apertures, openings or passages that allow chemicalreactants to enter the reaction zone 1312. The donor distributors 1315,1316 can include one or more spiral conduits, including, e.g., conduitsarranged in a braided fashion to distribute reactants into the reactionzone uniformly in the axial, radial and circumferential directions. Thereaction zone 1312 is bounded by the third conduit 1322 c which can havean insulated reactor outer surface 1321 to conserve heat within thereaction zone 1312. During operation, the reaction taking place in thereaction zone 1312 can be controlled by adjusting the rate at whichsteam and the hydrogen donor enter the reaction zone 1312, the rate atwhich heat enters the reaction zone 1312 (via the combustion productpassage 1318 and/or the heater 1323) and other variables, including thepressure at the reaction zone 1312. Appropriate sensors and controlfeedback loops carry out these processes autonomously, with optionalcontroller intervention, as described above with reference to FIG. R1-1.

Still further embodiments of suitable reactors with transmissivesurfaces are disclosed in pending U.S. application Ser. No. 13/026,996,filed Feb. 14, 2011, and incorporated herein by reference.

4.2 Representative Reactors with Re-Radiative Components

FIG. R2-1 is a partially schematic illustration of a system 2100 thatincludes a reactor 2110 having one or more selective (e.g.,re-radiative) surfaces in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure.The reactor 2110 further includes a reactor vessel 2111 having an outersurface 2121 that encloses or partially encloses a reaction zone 2112.In a representative example, the reactor vessel 2111 receives a hydrogendonor provided by a donor source 2101 to a donor entry port 2113. Forexample, the hydrogen donor can include methane or another hydrocarbon.A donor distributor or manifold 2115 within the reactor vessel 2111disperses or distributes the hydrogen donor into the reaction zone 2112.The reactor vessel 2111 also receives steam from a steam/water source2102 via a steam entry port 2114. A steam distributor 2116 in thereactor vessel 2111 distributes the steam into the reaction zone 2112.The reactor vessel 2111 can still further include a heater 2123 thatsupplies heat to the reaction zone 2112 to facilitate endothermicreactions. Such reactions can include dissociating methane or anotherhydrocarbon into hydrogen or a hydrogen compound, and carbon or a carboncompound. The products of the reaction (e.g., carbon and hydrogen) exitthe reactor vessel 2111 via an exit port 2117 and are collected at areaction product collector 2160 a.

The system 2100 can further include a source 2103 of radiant energyand/or additional reactants, which provides constituents to a passage2118 within the reactor vessel 2111. For example, the radiantenergy/reactant source 2103 can include a combustion chamber 2104 thatprovides hot combustion products 2105 to the passage 2118, as indicatedby arrow A. In a particular embodiment, the passage 2118 is concentricrelative to a passage centerline 2122. In other embodiments, the passage2118 can have other geometries. A combustion products collector 2160 bcollects combustion products exiting the reactor vessel 2111 forrecycling and/or other uses. In a particular embodiment, the combustionproducts 2105 can include carbon monoxide, water vapor, and otherconstituents.

One or more re-radiation components 2150 are positioned between thereaction zone 2112 (which can be disposed annularly around the passage2118) and an interior region 2120 of the passage 2118. The re-radiationcomponent 2150 can accordingly absorb incident radiation R from thepassage 2118 and direct re-radiated energy RR into the reaction zone2112. The re-radiated energy RR can have a wavelength spectrum ordistribution that more closely matches, approaches, overlaps and/orcorresponds to the absorption spectrum of at least one of the reactantsand/or at least one of the resulting products. By delivering the radiantenergy at a favorably shifted wavelength, the system 2100 can enhancethe reaction taking place in the reaction zone 2112, for example, byincreasing the efficiency with which energy is absorbed by thereactants, thus increasing the reaction zone temperature and/orpressure, and therefore the reaction rate, and/or the thermodynamicefficiency of the reaction. In a particular aspect of this embodiment,the combustion products 2105 and/or other constituents provided by thesource 2103 can be waste products from another chemical process (e.g.,an internal combustion process). Accordingly, the foregoing process canrecycle or reuse energy and/or constituents that would otherwise bewasted, in addition to facilitating the reaction at the reaction zone2112.

In at least some embodiments, the re-radiation component 2150 can beused in conjunction with, and/or integrated with, a transmissive surface2119 that allows chemical constituents (e.g., reactants) to readily passfrom the interior region 2120 of the passage 2118 to the reaction zone2112. Further details of representative transmissive surfaces werediscussed above under heading 4.1. In other embodiments, the reactor2110 can include one or more re-radiation components 2150 without alsoincluding a transmissive surface 2119. In any of these embodiments, theradiant energy present in the combustion product 2105 may be present asan inherent result of the combustion process. In other embodiments, anoperator can introduce additives into the stream of combustion products2105 (and/or the fuel that produces the combustion products) to increasethe amount of energy extracted from the stream and delivered to thereaction zone 2112 in the form of radiant energy. For example, thecombustion products 2105 (and/or fuel) can be seeded with sources ofsodium, potassium, and/or magnesium, which can absorb energy from thecombustion products 2105 and radiate the energy outwardly into thereaction zone 2112 at desirable frequencies. These illuminant additivescan be used in addition to the re-radiation component 2150.

FIG. R2-2 is a graph presenting absorption as a function of wavelengthfor a representative reactant (e.g., methane) and a representativere-radiation component. FIG. R2-2 illustrates a reactant absorptionspectrum 2130 that includes multiple reactant peak absorption ranges2131, three of which are highlighted in FIG. R2-2 as first, second andthird peak absorption ranges 2131 a, 2131 b, 2131 c. The peak absorptionranges 2131 represent wavelengths for which the reactant absorbs moreenergy than at other portions of the spectrum 2130. The spectrum 2130can include a peak absorption wavelength 2132 within a particular range,e.g., the third peak absorption range 2131 c.

FIG. R2-2 also illustrates a first radiant energy spectrum 2140 a havinga first peak wavelength range 2141 a. For example, the first radiantenergy spectrum 2140 a can be representative of the emission from thecombustion products 2105 described above with reference to FIG. R2-1.After the radiant energy has been absorbed and re-emitted by there-radiation component 2150 described above, it can produce a secondradiant energy spectrum 2140 b having a second peak wavelength range2141 b, which in turn includes a re-radiation peak value 2142. Ingeneral terms, the function of the re-radiation component 2150 is toshift the spectrum of the radiant energy from the first radiant energyspectrum 2140 a and peak wavelength range 2141 a to the second radiantenergy spectrum 2140 b and peak wavelength range 2141 b, as indicated byarrow S. As a result of the shift, the second peak wavelength range 2141b is closer to the third peak absorption range 2131 c of the reactantthan is the first peak wavelength range 2141 a. For example, the secondpeak wavelength range 2141 b can overlap with the third peak absorptionrange 2131 c and in a particular embodiment, the re-radiation peak value2142 can be at, or approximately at the same wavelength as the reactantpeak absorption wavelength 2132. In this manner, the re-radiationcomponent more closely aligns the spectrum of the radiant energy withthe peaks at which the reactant efficiently absorbs energy.Representative structures for performing this function are described infurther detail below with reference to FIG. R2-3.

FIG. R2-3 is a partially schematic, enlarged cross-sectionalillustration of a portion of the reactor 2110 described above withreference to FIG. R2-1, having a re-radiation component 2150 configuredin accordance with a particular embodiment of the technology. There-radiation component 2150 is positioned between the passage 2118 (andthe radiation energy R in the passage 2118), and the reaction zone 2112.The re-radiation component 2150 can include layers 2151 of material thatform spaced-apart structures 2158, which in turn carry a re-radiativematerial 2152. For example, the layers 2151 can include graphene layersor other crystal or self-orienting layers made from suitable buildingblock elements such as carbon, boron, nitrogen, silicon, transitionmetals, and/or sulfur. Carbon is a particularly suitable constituentbecause it is relatively inexpensive and readily available. In fact, itis a target output product of reactions that can be completed in thereaction zone 2112. Further details of suitable structures are disclosedin co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 12/857,228 previouslyincorporated herein by reference. Each structure 2158 can be separatedfrom its neighbor by a gap 2153. The gap 2153 can be maintained byspacers 2157 extending between neighboring structures 2158. Inparticular embodiments, the gaps 2153 between the structures 2158 can befrom about 2.5 microns to about 25 microns wide. In other embodiments,the gap 2153 can have other values, depending, for example, on thewavelength of the incident radiative energy R. The spacers 2157 arepositioned at spaced-apart locations both within and perpendicular tothe plane of FIG. R2-3 so as not to block the passage of radiationand/or chemical constituents through the component 2150.

The radiative energy R can include a first portion R1 that is generallyaligned parallel with the spaced-apart layered structures 2158 andaccordingly passes entirely through the re-radiation component 2150 viathe gaps 2153 and enters the reaction zone 2112 without contacting there-radiative material 2152. The radiative energy R can also include asecond portion R2 that impinges upon the re-radiative material 2152 andis accordingly re-radiated as a re-radiated portion RR into the reactionzone 2112. The reaction zone 2112 can accordingly include radiationhaving different energy spectra and/or different peak wavelength ranges,depending upon whether the incident radiation R impinged upon there-radiative material 2152 or not. This combination of energies in thereaction zone 2112 can be beneficial for at least some reactions. Forexample, the shorter wavelength, higher frequency (higher energy)portion of the radiative energy can facilitate the basic reaction takingplace in the reaction zone 2112, e.g., disassociating methane in thepresence of steam to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The longerwavelength, lower frequency (lower energy) portion can prevent thereaction products from adhering to surfaces of the reactor 2110, and/orcan separate such products from the reactor surfaces. In particularembodiments, the radiative energy can be absorbed by methane in thereaction zone 2112, and in other embodiments, the radiative energy canbe absorbed by other reactants, for example, the steam in the reactionzone 2112, or the products. In at least some cases, it is preferable toabsorb the radiative energy with the steam. In this manner, the steamreceives sufficient energy to be hot enough to complete the endothermicreaction within the reaction zone 2112, without unnecessarily heatingthe carbon atoms, which may potentially create particulates or tar ifthey are not quickly oxygenated after dissociation.

The re-radiative material 2152 can include a variety of suitableconstituents, including iron carbide, tungsten carbide, titaniumcarbide, boron carbide, and/or boron nitride. These materials, as wellas the materials forming the spaced-apart structures 2158, can beselected on the basis of several properties including corrosionresistance and/or compressive loading. For example, loading a carbonstructure with any of the foregoing carbides or nitrides can produce acompressive structure. An advantage of a compressive structure is thatit is less subject to corrosion than is a structure that is undertensile forces. In addition, the inherent corrosion resistance of theconstituents of the structure (e.g., the foregoing carbides andnitrides) can be enhanced because, under compression, the structure isless permeable to corrosive agents, including steam which may well bepresent as a reactant in the reaction zone 2112 and as a constituent ofthe combustion products 2105 in the passage 2118. The foregoingconstituents can be used alone or in combination with phosphorus,calcium fluoride and/or another phosphorescent material so that theenergy re-radiated by the re-radiative material 2152 may be delayed.This feature can smooth out at least some irregularities orintermittencies with which the radiant energy is supplied to thereaction zone 2112.

Another suitable re-radiative material 2152 includes spinel or anothercomposite of magnesium and/or aluminum oxides. Spinel can provide thecompressive stresses described above and can shift absorbed radiation tothe infrared so as to facilitate heating the reaction zone 2112. Forexample, sodium or potassium can emit visible radiation (e.g.,red/orange/yellow radiation) that can be shifted by spinel or anotheralumina-bearing material to the IR band. If both magnesium and aluminumoxides, including compositions with colorant additives such asmagnesium, aluminum, titanium, chromium, nickel, copper and/or vanadium,are present in the re-radiative material 2152, the re-radiative material2152 can emit radiation having multiple peaks, which can in turn allowmultiple constituents within the reaction zone 2112 to absorb theradiative energy.

The particular structure of the re-radiation component 2150 shown inFIG. R2-3 includes gaps 2153 that can allow not only radiation to passthrough, but can also allow constituents to pass through. Accordingly,the re-radiation component 2150 can also form the transmissive surface2119, which, as described above with reference to FIG. R2-1, can furtherfacilitate the reaction in the reaction zone 2112 by admittingreactants.

Still further embodiments of suitable reactors with re-radiativecomponents are disclosed in pending U.S. application Ser. No.13/027,015, filed Feb. 14, 2011, and incorporated herein by reference.

4.3 Representative Reactors with Heat Pipes and Heat Pumps

FIG. R3-1 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a thermal transferdevice 3100 (“device 3100”) configured in accordance with an embodimentof the present technology. As shown in FIG. R3-1, the device 3100 caninclude a conduit 3102 that has an input portion 3104, an output portion3106 opposite the input portion 3104, and a sidewall 3120 between theinput and output portions 3104 and 3106. The device 3100 can furtherinclude a first end cap 3108 at the input portion 3104 and a second endcap 3110 at the output portion 3106. The device 3100 can enclose aworking fluid 3122 (illustrated by arrows) that changes between a vaporphase 3122 a and a liquid phase 3122 b during avaporization-condensation cycle.

In selected embodiments, the device 3100 can also include one or morearchitectural constructs 3112. Architectural constructs 3112 aresynthetic matrix characterizations of crystals that are primarilycomprised of graphene, graphite, boron nitride, and/or another suitablecrystal. The configuration and the treatment of these crystals heavilyinfluence the properties that the architectural construct 3112 willexhibit when it experiences certain conditions. For example, asexplained in further detail below, the device 3100 can utilizearchitectural constructs 3112 for their thermal properties, capillaryproperties, sorbtive properties, catalytic properties, andelectromagnetic, optical, and acoustic properties. As shown in FIG.R3-1, the architectural construct 3112 can be arranged as a plurality ofsubstantially parallel layers 3114 spaced apart from one another by agap 3116. In various embodiments, the layers 3114 can be as thin as oneatom. In other embodiments, the thickness of the individual layers 3114can be greater and/or less than one atom and the width of the gaps 3116between the layers 3114 can vary. Methods of fabricating and configuringarchitectural constructs, such as the architectural constructs 3112shown in FIG. R3-1, are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/857,228 previously incorporated herein by reference.

As shown in FIG. R3-1, the first end cap 3108 can be installed proximateto a heat source (not shown) such that the first end cap 3108 serves asa hot interface that vaporizes the working fluid 3122. Accordingly, thefirst end cap 3108 can include a material with a high thermalconductivity and/or transmissivity to absorb or deliver heat from theheat source. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. R3-1, for example,the first end cap 3108 includes the architectural construct 3112 madefrom a thermally conductive crystal (e.g., graphene). The architecturalconstruct 3112 can be arranged to increase its thermal conductively byconfiguring the layers 3114 to have a high concentration of thermallyconductive pathways (e.g., formed by the layers 3114) substantiallyparallel to the influx of heat. For example, in the illustratedembodiment, the layers 3114 generally align with the incoming heat flowsuch that heat enters the architectural construct 3112 between thelayers 3114. This configuration exposes the greatest surface area of thelayers 3114 to the heat and thereby increases the heat absorbed by thearchitectural construct 3112. Advantageously, despite having a muchlower density than metal, the architectural construct 3112 canconductively and/or radiatively transfer a greater amount of heat perunit area than solid silver, raw graphite, copper, or aluminum.

As further shown in FIG. R3-1, the second end cap 3110 can expel heatfrom the device 3100 to a heat sink (not shown) such that the second endcap 3110 serves as a cold interface that condenses the working fluid3122. The second end cap 3110, like the first end cap 3108, can includea material with a high thermal conductivity (e.g., copper, aluminum)and/or transmissivity to absorb and/or transmit latent heat from theworking fluid 3122. Accordingly, like the first end cap 3108, the secondend cap 3110 can include the architectural construct 3112. However,rather than bringing heat into the device 3100 like the first end cap3108, the second end cap 3110 can convey latent heat out of the device3100. In various embodiments, the architectural constructs 3112 of thefirst and second end caps 3108 and 3110 can be made from the similarmaterials and/or arranged to have substantially similar thermalconductivities. In other embodiments, the architectural constructs 3112can include different materials, can be arranged in differingdirections, and/or otherwise configured to provide differing thermalconveyance capabilities including desired conductivities andtransmissivities. In further embodiments, neither the first end cap 3108nor the second end cap 3110 includes the architectural construct 3112.

In selected embodiments, the first end cap 3108 and/or the second endcap 3110 can include portions with varying thermal conductivities. Forexample, a portion of the first end cap 3108 proximate to the conduit3102 can include a highly thermally conductive material (e.g., thearchitectural construct 3112 configured to promote thermal conductivity,copper, etc.) such that it absorbs heat from the heat source andvaporizes the working fluid 3122. Another portion of the first end cap3108 spaced apart from the conduit 3102 can include a less thermallyconductive material to insulate the high conductivity portion. Incertain embodiments, for example, the insulative portion can includeceramic fibers, sealed dead air space, and/or other materials orstructures with high radiant absorptivities and/or low thermalconductivities. In other embodiments, the insulative portion of thefirst end cap 3108 can include the architectural construct 3112 arrangedto include a low concentration of thermally conductive pathways (e.g.,the layers 3114 are spaced apart by large gaps 3116) such that it has alow availability for conductively transferring heat.

In other embodiments, the configurations of the architectural constructs3112 may vary from those shown in FIG. R3-1 based on the dimensions ofthe device 3100, the temperature differential between the heat sourceand the heat sink, the desired heat transfer, the working fluid 3122,and/or other suitable thermal transfer characteristics. For example,architectural constructs 3112 having smaller surface areas may be suitedfor microscopic applications of the device 3100 and/or high temperaturedifferentials, whereas architectural constructs 3112 having highersurface areas may be better suited for macroscopic applications of thedevice 3100 and/or higher rates of heat transfer. The thermalconductivities of the architectural constructs 3112 can also be alteredby coating the layers 3114 with dark colored coatings to increase heatabsorption and with light colored coatings to reflect heat away andthereby decrease heat absorption.

Referring still to FIG. R3-1, the device 3100 can return the liquidphase 3122 b of the working fluid 3122 to the input portion 3104 bycapillary action. The sidewall 3120 of the conduit 3102 can thus includea wick structure that exerts a capillary pressure on the liquid phase3122 b to drive it toward a desired location (e.g., the input portion3104). For example, the sidewall 3120 can include cellulose, ceramicwicking materials, sintered or glued metal powder, nanofibers, and/orother suitable wick structures or materials that provide capillaryaction.

In the embodiment shown in FIG. R3-1, the architectural construct 3112is aligned with the longitudinal axis 3118 of the conduit 3102 andconfigured to exert the necessary capillary pressure to direct theliquid phase 3122 b of the working fluid 3122 to the input portion 3104.The composition, dopants, spacing, and/or thicknesses of the layers 3114can be selected based on the surface tension required to providecapillary action for the working fluid 3122. Advantageously, thearchitectural construct 3112 can apply sufficient capillary pressure onthe liquid phase 3122 b to drive the working fluid 3122 short and longdistances (e.g., millimeters to kilometers). Additionally, in selectedembodiments, the surface tension of the layers 3114 can be manipulatedsuch that the architectural construct 3112 rejects a preselected fluid.For example, the architectural construct 3112 can be configured to havea surface tension that rejects any liquid other than the liquid phase3122 b of the working fluid 3122. In such an embodiment, thearchitectural construct 3112 can function as a filter that prevents anyfluid other than the working fluid 3122 (e.g., fluids tainted byimpurities that diffused into the conduit 3102) from interfering withthe vaporization-condensation cycle.

In other embodiments, the selective capillary action of thearchitectural construct 3112 separates substances at far lowertemperatures than conventional distillation technologies. The fasterseparation of substances by the architectural construct 3112 can reduceor eliminates substance degradation caused if the substance reacheshigher temperatures within the device 3100. For example, a potentiallyharmful substance can be removed from the working fluid 3122 by theselective capillary action of the architectural construct 3112 beforethe working fluid 3122 reaches the higher temperatures proximate to theinput portion 3104.

The conduit 3102 and the first and second end caps 3108 and 3110 can besealed together using suitable fasteners able to withstand thetemperature differentials of the device 3100. In other embodiments, thedevice 3100 is formed integrally. For example, the device 3100 can bemolded using one or more materials. A vacuum can be used to remove anyair within the conduit 3102, and then the conduit 3102 can be filledwith a small volume of the working fluid 3122 chosen to match theoperating temperatures.

In operation, the device 3100 utilizes a vaporization-condensation cycleof the working fluid 3122 to transfer heat. More specifically, the firstend cap 3108 can absorb heat from the heat source, and the working fluid3122 can in turn absorb the heat from the first end cap 3108 to producethe vapor phase 3122 a. The pressure differential caused by the phasechange of the working fluid 3122 can drive the vapor phase 3122 a of theworking fluid 3122 to fill the space available and thus deliver theworking fluid 3122 through the conduit 3102 to the output portion 3104.At the output portion 3104, the second end cap 3110 can absorb heat fromthe working fluid 3122 to change the working fluid 3122 to the liquidphase 3122 b. The latent heat from the condensation of the working fluid3122 can be transferred out of the device 3100 via the second end cap3110. In general, the heat influx to the first end cap 3108substantially equals the heat removed by the second end cap 3110. Asfurther shown in FIG. R3-1, capillary action provided by thearchitectural construct 3112 or other wick structure can return theliquid phase 3122 b of the working fluid 3122 to the input portion 3104.In selected embodiments, the termini of the layers 3114 can be staggeredor angled toward the conduit 3102 to facilitate entry of the liquidphase 3122 b between the layers 3114 and/or to facilitate conversion ofthe liquid phase 3122 b to the vapor phase 3122 b at the input portion3104. At the input portion 3104, the working fluid 3122 can againvaporize and continue to circulate through the conduit 3102 by means ofthe vaporization-condensation cycle.

The device 3100 can also operate the vaporization-condensation cycledescribed above in the reverse direction. For example, when the heatsource and heat sink are reversed, the first end cap 3108 can serve asthe cold interface and the second end cap 3110 can serve as the hotinterface. Accordingly, the input and output portions 3104 and 3106 areinverted such that the working fluid 3122 vaporizes proximate to thesecond end cap 3110, condenses proximate to the first end cap 3108, andreturns to the second end cap 3110 using the capillary action providedby the sidewall 3120. The reversibility of the device 3100 allows thedevice 3100 to be installed irrespective of the positions of the heatsource and heat sink. Additionally, the device 3100 can accommodateenvironments in which the locations of the heat source and the heat sinkmay reverse. For example, as described further below, the device 3100can operate in one direction during the summer to utilize solar energyand the device 3100 can reverse direction during the winter to utilizeheat stored during the previous summer.

Embodiments of the device 3100 including the architectural construct3112 at the first end cap 3108 and/or second end cap 3110 have higherthermal conductivity per unit area than conventional conductors. Thisincreased thermal conductivity can increase process rate and thetemperature differential between the first and second end caps 3108 and3110 to produce greater and more efficient heat transfer. Additionally,embodiments including the architectural construct 3112 at the firstand/or second end caps 3108 and 3110 require less surface area to absorbthe heat necessary to effectuate the vaporization-condensation cycle.Thus, the device 3100 can be more compact than a conventional heat pipethat transfers an equivalent amount of heat and provide considerablecost reduction.

Referring still to FIG. R3-1, in various embodiments, the device 3100can further include a liquid reservoir 3124 in fluid communication withthe conduit 3102 such that the liquid reservoir 3124 can collect andstore at least a portion of the working fluid 3122. As shown in FIG.R3-1, the liquid reservoir 3124 can be coupled to the input portion 3104of the conduit 3102 via a pipe or other suitable tubular shapedstructure. The liquid phase 3122 b can thus flow from the sidewall 3102(e.g., the architectural construct 3112, wick structure, etc.) into theliquid reservoir 3124. In other embodiments, the liquid reservoir 3124is in fluid communication with another portion of the conduit 3102(e.g., the output portion 3106) such that the liquid reservoir 3124collects the working fluid 3122 in the vapor phase 3122 a or in mixedphases.

The liquid reservoir 3124 allows the device 3100 to operate in at leasttwo modes: a heat accumulation mode and a heat transfer mode. During theheat accumulation mode, the vaporization-condensation cycle of theworking fluid 3122 can be slowed or halted by funneling the workingfluid 3122 from the conduit 3102 to the liquid reservoir 3124. The firstend cap 3108 can then function as a thermal accumulator that absorbsheat without the vaporization-condensation cycle dissipating theaccumulated heat. After the first end cap 3108 accumulates a desiredamount of heat and/or the heat source (e.g., the sun) no longer suppliesheat, the device 3100 can change to the heat transfer mode by funnelingthe working fluid 3122 into the conduit 3102. The heat stored in firstend cap 3108 can vaporize the incoming working fluid 3122 and thepressure differential can drive the vapor phase 3122 a toward the outputportion 3106 of the conduit 3102 to restart thevaporization-condensation cycle described above. In certain embodiments,the restart of the vaporization-condensation cycle can be monitored toanalyze characteristics (e.g., composition, vapor pressure, latent heat,efficiency) of the working fluid 3122.

As shown in FIG. R3-1, a controller 3126 can be operably coupled to theliquid reservoir 3124 to modulate the rate at which the working fluid3122 enters the conduit 3102 and/or adjust the volume of the workingfluid 3122 flowing into or out of the conduit 3102. The controller 3126can thereby change the pressure within the conduit 3102 such that thedevice 3100 can operate at varying temperature differentials between theheat source and sink. Thus, the device 3100 can provide a constant heatflux despite a degrading heat source (e.g., first end cap 3108) orintermittent vaporization-condensation cycles.

FIGS. R3-2A and R3-2B are schematic cross-sectional views of thermaltransfer devices 3200 a, 3200 b (“devices 3200”) in accordance withother embodiments of the present technology. Several features of thedevices 3200 are generally similar to the features of the device 3100shown in FIG. R3-1. For example, each device 3200 can include theconduit 3102, the sidewall 3120, and the first and second end caps 3108and 3110. The device 3200 also transfers heat from a heat source to aheat sink utilizing a vaporization-condensation cycle of the workingfluid 3122 generally similar to that described with reference to FIG.R3-1. Additionally, as shown in FIGS. R3-2A and R3-2B, the device 3200can further include the liquid reservoir 3124 and the controller 3126such that the device 3200 can operate in the heat accumulation mode andthe heat transfer mode.

The devices 3200 shown in FIGS. R3-2A and R3-2B can utilize gravity,rather than the capillary action described in FIG. R3-1, to return theliquid phase 3122 b of the working fluid 3122 to the input portion 3104.Thus, as shown in FIGS. R3-2A and R3-2B, the heat inflow is below theheat output such that gravity can drive the liquid phase 3122 b down thesidewall 3120 to the input portion 3104. Thus, as shown in FIG. R3-2A,the sidewall 3120 need only include an impermeable membrane 3228, ratherthan a wick structure necessary for capillary action, to seal theworking fluid 3122 within the conduit 3102. The impermeable membrane3228 can be made from a polymer such as polyethylene, a metal or metalalloy such as copper and stainless steel, and/or other suitableimpermeable materials. In other embodiments, the devices 3200 canutilize other sources of acceleration (e.g., centrifugal force,capillary action) to return the liquid phase 3122 b to the input portion3104 such that the positions of the input and output portions 3104 and3106 are not gravitationally dependent.

As shown in FIG. R3-2B, in other embodiments, the sidewall 3120 canfurther include the architectural construct 3112. For example, thearchitectural construct 3112 can be arranged such that the layers 3114are oriented orthogonal to the longitudinal axis 3118 of the conduit3102 to form thermally conductive passageways that transfer heat awayfrom the conduit 3102. Thus, as the liquid phase 3122 b flows along thesidewall 3120, the architectural construct 3112 can draw heat from theliquid phase 3122 b, along the layers 3114, and away from the sidewall3120 of the device 3200. This can increase the temperature differentialbetween the input and output portions 3104 and 3106 to increase the rateof heat transfer and/or facilitate the vaporization-condensation cyclewhen the temperature gradient would otherwise be insufficient. In otherembodiments, the layers 3114 can be oriented at a different angle withrespect to the longitudinal axis 3118 to transfer heat in a differentdirection. In certain embodiments, the architectural construct 3112 canbe positioned radially outward of the impermeable membrane 3228. Inother embodiments, the impermeable membrane 3228 can be radially outwardof architectural construct 3112 or the architectural construct 3112itself can provide a sufficiently impervious wall to seal the workingfluid 3122 within the conduit 3102.

The first and second end caps 3108 and 3110 shown in FIGS. R3-2A andR3-2B can also include the architectural construct 3112. As shown inFIGS. R3-2A and R3-2B, the layers 3114 of the architectural constructs3112 are generally aligned with the direction heat input and heat outputto provide thermally conductive passageways that efficiently transferheat. Additionally, the architectural constructs 3112 of the firstand/or second end caps 3108 and 3110 can be configured to apply acapillary pressure for a particular substance entering or exiting theconduit. For example, the composition, spacing, dopants, and/orthicknesses of the layers 3114 of the architectural constructs 3112 canbe modulated to selectively draw a particular substance between thelayers 3114. In selected embodiments, the architectural construct 3112can include a first zone of layers 3114 that are configured for a firstsubstance and a second zone of layers 3114 that are configured for asecond substance to selectively remove and/or add two or more desiredsubstances from the conduit 3102.

In further embodiments, the second end cap 3110 can utilize the sorbtiveproperties of the architectural constructs 3112 to selectively load adesired constituent of the working fluid 3122 between the layers 3114.The construction of the architectural construct 3112 can be manipulatedto obtain the requisite surface tension to load almost any element orsoluble. For example, the layers 3114 can be preloaded withpredetermined dopants or materials to adjust the surface tension ofadsorption along these surfaces. In certain embodiments, the layers 3114can be preloaded with CO₂ such that the architectural construct 3112 canselectively mine CO₂ from the working fluid 3122 as heat releasesthrough the second end cap 3110. In other embodiments, the layers 3114can be spaced apart from one another by a predetermined distance,include a certain coating, and/or otherwise be arranged to selectivelyload the desired constituent. In some embodiments, the desiredconstituent adsorbs onto the surfaces of individual layers 3114, whilein other embodiments the desired constituent absorbs into zones betweenthe layers 3114. In further embodiments, substances can be purposefullyfed into the conduit 3102 from the input portion 3104 (e.g., through thefirst end cap 3108) such that the added substance can combine or reactwith the working fluid 3122 to produce the desired constituent. Thus,the architectural construct 3112 at the second end cap 3110 canfacilitate selective mining of constituents. Additionally, thearchitectural construct 3112 can remove impurities and/or otherundesirable solubles that may have entered the conduit 3102 andpotentially interfere with the efficiency of the device 3200.

Similarly, in selected embodiments, the architectural construct 3112 atthe first end cap 3110 can also selectively load desired compoundsand/or elements to prevent them from ever entering the conduit 3102. Forexample, the architectural construct 3112 can filter out paraffins thatcan impede or otherwise interfere with the heat transfer of the device3200. In other embodiments, the devices 3200 can include other filtersthat may be used to prevent certain materials from entering the conduit3102.

Moreover, similar to selective loading of compounds and elements, thearchitectural construct 3112 at the first and second end caps 3108 and3110 may also be configured to absorb radiant energy of a desiredwavelength. For example, the layers 3114 can have a certain thickness,composition, spacing to absorb a particular wavelength of radiantenergy. In selected embodiments, the architectural construct 3112absorbs radiant energy of a first wavelength and converts it intoradiant energy of a second wavelength, retransmitting at least some ofthe absorbed energy. For example, the layers 3114 may be configured toabsorb ultraviolet radiation and convert the ultraviolet radiation intoinfrared radiation.

Additionally, the layers 3114 can also catalyze a reaction bytransferring heat to a zone where the reaction is to occur. In otherimplementations, the layers 3114 catalyze a reaction by transferringheat away from a zone where a reaction is to occur. For example, heatmay be conductively transferred into the layers 3114 (e.g., as discussedin U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/857,515, filed Aug. 16, 2010,entitled “APPARATUSES AND METHODS FOR STORING AND/OR FILTERING ASUBSTANCE” which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety) tosupply heat to an endothermic reaction within a support tube of thelayers 3114. In some implementations, the layers 3114 catalyze areaction by removing a product of the reaction from the zone where thereaction is to occur. For example, the layers 3114 may absorb alcoholfrom a biochemical reaction within a central support tube in whichalcohol is a byproduct, thereby expelling the alcohol on outer edges ofthe layers 3114, and prolonging the life of a microbe involved in thebiochemical reaction.

FIG. R3-3A is schematic cross-sectional view of a thermal transferdevice 3300 (“device 3300”) operating in a first direction in accordancewith a further embodiment of the present technology, and FIG. R3-3B is aschematic cross-sectional view of the device 3300 of FIG. R3-3Aoperating in a second direction opposite the first direction. Severalfeatures of the device 3300 are generally similar to the features of thedevices 3100 and 3200 shown in FIG. R3-1-2B. For example, the device3300 can include the conduit 3102, the first and second end caps 3108and 3110, and the architectural construct 3112. As shown in FIGS. R3-3Aand R3-3B, the sidewall 3120 of the device 3300 can include twoarchitectural constructs 3112: a first architectural construct 3112 ahaving layers 3114 oriented parallel to the longitudinal axis 3118 ofthe conduit 3102 and a second architectural construct 3112 b radiallyinward from the first architectural construct 3112 a and having layers3114 oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal axis 3118. The layers3114 of the first architectural construct 3112 a can perform a capillaryaction, and the layers 3114 of the second architectural construct 3112 bcan form thermally conductive passageways that transfer heat away fromthe side of the conduit 3102 and thereby increase the temperaturedifferential between the input and output portions 3104 and 3106.

Similar to the device 3100 shown in FIG. R3-1, the device 3300 can alsooperate when the direction of heat flow changes and the input and outputportions 3104 and 3106 are inverted. As shown in FIG. R3-3A, forexample, the device 3300 can absorb heat at the first end cap 3108 tovaporize the working fluid 3122 at the input portion 3104, transfer theheat via the vapor phase 3122 a of the working fluid 3122 through theconduit 3102, and expel heat from the second end cap 3110 to condensethe working fluid 3122 at the output portion 3106. As further shown inFIG. R3-3A, the liquid phase 3122 b of the working fluid 3122 can movebetween the layers 3114 of the first architectural construct 3112 b bycapillary action as described above with reference to FIG. R3-1. Inother embodiments, the sidewall 3120 can include a different capillarystructure (e.g., cellulose) that can drive the liquid phase 3122 b fromthe output portion 3106 to the input portion 3104. As shown in FIG.R3-3B, the conditions can be reversed such that heat enters the device3300 proximate to the second end cap 3110 and exits the device 3300proximate to the first end cap 3108. Advantageously, as discussed above,the dual-direction vapor-condensation cycle of the working fluid 3122accommodates environments in which the locations of the heat source andthe heat sink reverse.

In at least some embodiments, a heat pump can be used to transfer heat,in addition to or in lieu of a heat pipe, and the transferred heat canbe used to enhance the efficiency and/or performance of a reactor towhich the heat pump is coupled. In particular embodiments, the heat isextracted from a permafrost, geothermal, ocean and/or other source. FIG.R3-4 is a partially schematic illustration of a reversible heat pump3150 positioned to receive heat from a source 3200 (e.g., a geothermalsource), as indicated by arrow H1, and deliver the heat at a highertemperature than that of the source, as indicated by arrow H2. The heatpump 3150 transfers heat via a working fluid that can operate in aclosed loop refrigeration cycle. Accordingly, the heat pump 3150 caninclude a compressor 3154, an expansion valve 3162, supply and returnconduits 3156, 3160, and first and second heat exchangers 3152, 3158. Inoperation, the working fluid receives heat from the source 3200 via thesecond heat exchanger 3158. The working fluid passes through the supplyconduit 3156 to the compressor 3154 where it is compressed, and deliversheat (e.g., to a non-combustion reactor) at the first heat exchanger3152. The working fluid then expands through the expansion valve 3162and returns to the second heat exchanger 3158 via the return conduit3160.

The working fluid can be selected based at least in part on thetemperature of the source 3200 and the required delivery temperature.For example, the working fluid can be a relatively inert fluid such asFreon, ammonia, or carbon dioxide. Such fluids are compatible withvarious polymer and metal components. These components can include tubeliner polymers such as fluorinated ethylene-propylene, perfluoroalkoxy,polyvinylidene fluoride, tetrafluoroethylene, an ethylene-propylenedimer, and/or many other materials that may be reinforced with fiberssuch as graphite, E-glass, S-glass, glass-ceramic or various organicfilaments to form the conduits 3156, 3160. The heat exchangers 3158 canbe made from metal alloys, e.g., Type 304 or other “300” seriesaustenitic stainless steels, aluminum alloys, brass or bronzeselections. The compressor 3154 can be a positive displacement orturbine type compressor depending upon factors that include the scale ofthe application. The expansion valve 3162 can be selected to meet thepressure drop and flow requirements of a particular application.

In a representative embodiment for which the source 3200 is at amoderate temperature (e.g., 125° F. (52° C.)), the working fluid caninclude carbon dioxide that is expanded through the valve 3162 to areduced temperature (e.g., 115° F. (46° C.)). The working fluid receivesheat at the source 3200 to achieve a representative temperature of 120°F. (49° C.). At the compressor 3154, the temperature of the workingfluid is elevated to a representative value of 325° F. (163° C.) orhigher. In particular embodiments, one or more additional heat pumpcycles (not shown) can be used to further elevate the deliverytemperature. It can be particularly advantageous to use heat pump cyclesto deliver heat at a higher temperature than the source 3200 becausesuch cycles typically deliver two to ten times more heat energy comparedto the energy required for operation of the compressor 3154.

In a generally similar manner, it can be advantageous to use one or moreheat pump cycles in reverse to cool a working fluid to a temperaturebelow the ambient temperature and thus “refrigerate” the substance beingcooled. For example, permafrost or methane hydrates in lake bottoms orocean deposits can be cooled to a temperature far below the ambienttemperature of the air or surrounding water in such applications.

Still further embodiments of suitable reactors with transmissivesurfaces are disclosed in pending U.S. application Ser. No. 13/027,244,filed Feb. 14, 2011, and incorporated herein by reference.

4.4 Representative Reactors with Solar Conveyors

FIG. R4-1 is a partially schematic illustration of a system 4100including a reactor vessel 4110 having a reaction zone 4111. The system4100 further includes a solar collector 4101 that directs solar energy4103 to the reaction zone 4111. The solar collector 4103 can include adish, trough, heliostat arrangement, fresnel lens and/or otherradiation-focusing element. The reactor vessel 4110 and the solarcollector 4101 can be mounted to a pedestal 4102 that allows the solarcollector 4101 to rotate about at least two orthogonal axes in order tocontinue efficiently focusing the solar energy 4103 as the earthrotates. The system 4100 can further include multiple reactant/productvessels 4170, including first and second reactant vessels 4170 a, 4170b, and first and second product vessels, 4170 c, 4170 d. In particularembodiments, the first reactant vessel 4170 a can provide a reactantthat contains hydrogen and carbon, such as methane, which is processedat the reaction zone 4111 in an endothermic reaction to produce hydrogenand carbon which is provided to the first and second product vessels4170 c, 4170 d, respectively. In other embodiments, other reactants, forexample, municipal solid waste streams, biomass reactants, and/or otherwaste streams can be provided at a hopper 4171 forming a portion of thesecond reactant vessel 4170 b. In any of these embodiments, an internalreactant delivery system and product removal system provide thereactants to the reaction zone 4111 and remove the products from thereaction zone 4111, as will be described in further detail later withreference to FIG. R4-3.

The system 4100 can further include a supplemental heat source 4180 thatprovides heat to the reaction zone 4111 when the available solar energy4103 is insufficient to sustain the endothermic reaction at the reactionzone 4111. In a particular embodiment, the supplemental heat source 4180can include an inductive heater 4181 that is positioned away from thereaction zone 4111 during the day to allow the concentrated solar energy4103 to enter the reaction zone 4111, and can slide over the reactionzone 4111 at night to provide heat to the reaction zone 4111. Theinductive heater 4181 can be powered by a renewable clean energy source,for example, hydrogen produced by the reactor vessel 4110 during theday, or falling water, geothermal energy, wind energy, or other suitablesources.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, the system 4100 can further includea controller 4190 that receives input signals 4191 and directs theoperation of the devices making up the system 4100 via control signalsor other outputs 4192. For example, the controller 4190 can receive asignal from a radiation sensor 4193 indicating when the incident solarradiation is insufficient to sustain the reaction at the reaction zone4111. In response, the controller 4190 can issue a command to activatethe supplemental heat source 4180. The controller 4190 can also directthe reactant delivery and product removal systems, described furtherbelow with reference to FIG. R4-3.

FIG. R4-2 is a partially schematic illustration of an embodiment of thereactor vessel 4110 shown in FIG. R4-1, illustrating a transmissivecomponent 4112 positioned to allow the incident solar energy 4103 toenter the reaction zone 4111. In a particular embodiment, thetransmissive component 4112 can include a glass or other suitablytransparent, high temperature material that is easily transmissible tosolar radiation, and configured to withstand the high temperatures inthe reaction zone 4111. For example, temperatures at the reaction zone4111 are in some embodiments expected to reach 44000° F., and can behigher for the reactants and/or products.

In other embodiments, the transmissive component 4112 can include one ormore elements that absorb radiation at one wavelength and re-radiate itat another. For example, the transmissive component 4112 can include afirst surface 4113 a that receives incident solar energy at onewavelength and a second surface 4113 b that re-radiates the energy atanother wavelength into the reaction zone 4111. In this manner, theenergy provided to the reaction zone 4111 can be specifically tailoredto match or approximate the absorption characteristics of the reactantsand/or products placed within the reaction zone 4111. Further details ofrepresentative re-radiation devices were described above in Section 4.2.

In other embodiments, the reactor vessel 4110 can include otherstructures that perform related functions. For example, the reactorvessel 4110 can include a Venetian blind arrangement 4114 having firstand second surfaces 4113 a, 4113 b that can be pivoted to present onesurface or the other depending upon external conditions, e.g., the levelof incident solar energy 4103. In a particular aspect of thisembodiment, the first surface 4113 a can have a relatively highabsorptivity and a relatively low emissivity. This surface canaccordingly readily absorb radiation during the day. The second surface4113 b can have a relatively low absorptivity and a relatively highemissivity and can accordingly operate to cool the reaction zone 4111(or another component of the reactor 4110), e.g., at night. Arepresentative application of this arrangement is a reactor thatconducts both endothermic and exothermic reactions, as is describedfurther in Section 4.8 below. Further details of other arrangements foroperating the solar collector 4101 (FIG. R4-1) in a cooling mode aredescribed in Section 4.5 below.

In still further embodiments, the reactor 4110 can include features thatredirect radiation that “spills” (e.g., is not precisely focused on thetransmissive component 4112) due to collector surface aberrations,environmental defects, non-parallel radiation, wind and/or otherdisturbances or distortions. These features can include additionalVenetian blinds 4114 a that can be positioned and/or adjusted toredirect radiation (with or without wavelength shifting) into thereaction zone 4111.

FIG. R4-3 is a partially schematic, cross-sectional illustration of aportion of a reactor vessel 4110 configured in accordance with anembodiment of the present disclosure. In one aspect of this embodiment,the reactor 4110 includes a reactant delivery system 4130 that ispositioned within a generally cylindrical, barrel-shaped reactor vessel4110, and a product removal system 4140 positioned annularly inwardlyfrom the reactant delivery system 4130. For example, the reactantdelivery system 4130 can include an outer screw 4131, which in turnincludes an outer screw shaft 4132 and outwardly extending outer screwthreads 4133. The outer screw 4131 has an axially extending first axialopening 4135 in which the product removal system 4140 is positioned. Theouter screw 4131 rotates about a central rotation axis 4115, asindicated by arrow O. As it does so, it carries at least one reactant4134 (e.g., a gaseous, liquid, and/or solid reactant) upwardly and tothe right as shown in FIG. R4-3, toward the reaction zone 4111. As thereactant 4134 is carried within the outer screw threads 4133, it is alsocompacted, potentially releasing gases and/or liquids, which can escapethrough louvers and/or other openings 4118 located annularly outwardlyfrom the outer screw 4131. As the reactant 4134 becomes compacted in theouter screw threads 4133, it forms a seal against an inner wall 4119 ofthe vessel 4110. This arrangement can prevent losing the reactant 4134,and can instead force the reactant 4134 to move toward the reaction zone4111. The reactant delivery system 4130 can include other features, inaddition to the outer screw threads 4133, to force the reactant 4134toward the reaction zone 4111. For example, the inner wall 4119 of thereactor vessel 4110 can include one or more spiral rifle grooves 4116that tend to force the reactant 4134 axially as the outer screw 4131rotates. In addition to, or in lieu of this feature, the entire outerscrew 4131 can reciprocate back and forth, as indicated by arrow R toprevent the reactant 4134 from sticking to the inner wall 4119, and/orto release reactant 4134 that may stick to the inner wall 4119. A barrelheater 4117 placed near the inner wall 4119 can also reduce reactantsticking, in addition to or in lieu of the foregoing features. In aleast some embodiments, it is expected that the reactant 4134 will beless likely to stick when warm.

The reactant 4134 can include a variety of suitable compositions, e.g.,compositions that provide a hydrogen donor to the reaction zone 4111. Inrepresentative embodiments, the reactant 4134 can include biomassconstituents, e.g., municipal solid waste, commercial waste, forestproduct waste or slash, cellulose, lignocellulose, hydrocarbon waste(e.g., tires), and/or others. After being compacted, these wasteproducts can be highly subdivided, meaning that they can readily absorbincident radiation due to rough surface features and/or surface featuresthat re-reflect and ultimately absorb incident radiation. This propertycan further improve the efficiency with which the reactant 4134 heats upin the reaction zone 4111.

Once the reactant 4134 has been delivered to the reaction zone 4111, itreceives heat from the incident solar energy 4103 or another source, andundergoes an endothermic reaction. The reaction zone 4111 can have anannular shape and can include insulation 4120 to prevent heat fromescaping from the vessel 4110. In one embodiment, the endothermicreaction taking place at the reaction zone 4111 includes dissociatingmethane, and reforming the carbon and hydrogen constituents intoelemental carbon and diatomic hydrogen, or other carbon compounds (e.g.,oxygenated carbon in the form of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide) andhydrogen compounds. The resulting product 4146 can include gaseousportions (indicated by arrow G), which passed annularly inwardly fromthe reaction zone 4111 to be collected by the product removal system4140. Solid portions 4144 (e.g., ash and/or other byproducts) of theproduct 4146 are also collected by the product removal system 4140.

The product removal system 4140 can include an inner screw 4141positioned in the first axial opening 4135 within the outer screw 4131.The inner screw 4141 can include an inner screw shaft 4142 and innerscrew threads 4143. The inner screw 4141 can also rotate about therotation axis 4115, as indicated by arrow I, in the same direction asthe outer screw 4131 or in the opposite direction. The inner screw 4141includes a second axial passage 4145 having openings that allow thegaseous product G to enter. The gaseous product G travels down thesecond axial opening 4145 to be collected and, in at least someinstances, further processed (e.g., to isolate the carbon produced inthe reaction from the hydrogen produced in the reaction). In particularembodiments, the gaseous product G can exchange additional heat with theincoming reactant 4134 via an additional heat exchanger (not shown inFIG. R4-3) to cool the product G and heat the reactant 4134. In otherembodiments, the gaseous product G can be cooled by driving a Stirlingengine or other device to generate mechanical and/or electric power. Asthe inner screw 4141 rotates, it carries the solid portions 4144 of theproduct 4146 downwardly and to the left as shown in FIG. R4-3. The solidproducts 4144 (and the gaseous product G) can convey heat via conductionto the outer screw 4130 to heat the incoming reactant 4134, after whichthe solid portions 4144 can be removed for use. For example, nitrogenousand/or sulfurous products from the reaction performed at the reactionzone 4111 can be used in agricultural or industrial processes. Theproducts and therefore the chemical and physical composition of thesolid portions can depend on the characteristics of the incomingreactants, which can vary widely, e.g., from municipal solid waste toindustrial waste to biomass.

As discussed above with reference to FIGS. R4-1 and R4-2, the system4100 can include features that direct energy (e.g., heat) into thereaction zone 4111 even when the available solar energy is insufficientto sustain the reaction. In an embodiment shown in FIG. R4-3, thesupplemental heat source 4180 can include combustion reactants 4182(e.g., an oxidizer and/or a hydrogen-containing combustible material)that is directed through a delivery tube 4184 positioned in the secondaxial opening 4145 to a combustor or combustor zone 4183 that is inthermal communication with the reaction zone 4111. During the night orother periods of time when the incident solar energy is low, thesupplemental heat source 4180 can provide additional heat to thereaction zone 4111 to sustain the endothermic reaction taking placetherein.

One feature of an embodiment described above with reference to FIG. R4-3is that the incoming reactant 4134 can be in close or intimate thermalcommunication with the solid product 4144 leaving the reaction zone. Inparticular, the outer screw shaft 4132 and outer screw threads 4133 canbe formed from a highly thermally conductive material, so as to receiveheat from the solid product 4144 carried by the inner screw 4141, anddeliver the heat to the incoming reactant 4134. An advantage of thisarrangement is that it is thermally efficient because it removes heatfrom products that would otherwise be cooled in a manner that wastes theheat, and at the same time heats the incoming reactants 4134, thusreducing the amount of heat that must be produced by the solarconcentrator 4101 (FIG. R4-1) and/or the supplemental heat source 4180.By improving the efficiency with which hydrogen and/or carbon or otherbuilding blocks are produced in the reactor vessel 4110, the reactorsystem 4100 can increase the commercial viability of the renewablereactants and energy sources used to produce the products.

Still further embodiments of suitable reactors with solar conveyors aredisclosed in issued U.S. Pat. No. 8,187,549, incorporated herein byreference.

4.5 Representative Reactors with Solar Concentrators

FIG. R5-1 is a partially schematic, partial cross-sectional illustrationof a system 5100 having a reactor 5110 coupled to a solar concentrator5120 in accordance with the particular embodiment of the technology. Inone aspect of this embodiment, the solar concentrator 5120 includes adish 5121 mounted to pedestal 5122. The dish 5121 can include aconcentrator surface 5123 that receives incident solar energy 5126, anddirects the solar energy as focused solar energy 5127 toward a focalarea 5124. The dish 5121 can be coupled to a concentrator actuator 5125that moves the dish 5121 about at least two orthogonal axes in order toefficiently focus the solar energy 5126 as the earth rotates. As will bedescribed in further detail below, the concentrator actuator 5125 canalso be configured to deliberately position the dish 5121 to face awayfrom the sun during a cooling operation.

The reactor 5110 can include one or more reaction zones 5111, shown inFIG. R5-1 as a first reaction zone 5111 a and second reaction zone 5111b. In a particular embodiment, the first reaction zone 5111 a ispositioned at the focal area 5124 to receive the focused solar energy5127 and facilitate a dissociation reaction or other endothermicreaction. Accordingly, the system 5100 can further include adistribution/collection system 5140 that provides reactants to thereactor 5110 and collects products received from the reactor 5110. Inone aspect of this embodiment, the distribution/collection system 5140includes a reactant source 5141 that directs a reactant to the firstreaction zone 5111 a, and one or more product collectors 5142 (two areshown in FIG. R5-1 as a first product collector 5142 a and a secondproduct collector 5142 b) that collect products from the reactor 5110.When the reactor 5110 includes a single reaction zone (e.g. the firstreaction zone 5111 a) the product collectors 5142 a, 5142 b can collectproducts directly from the first reaction zone 5111 a. In anotherembodiment, intermediate products produced at the first reaction zone5111 a are directed to the second reaction zone 5111 b. At the secondreaction zone 5111 b, the intermediate products can undergo anexothermic reaction, and the resulting products are then delivered tothe product collectors 5142 a, 5142 b along a product flow path 5154.For example, in a representative embodiment, the reactant source 5141can include methane and carbon dioxide, which are provided (e.g., in anindividually controlled manner) to the first reaction zone 5111 a andheated to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The carbon monoxide andhydrogen are then provided to the second reaction zone 5111 b to producemethanol in an exothermic reaction. Further details of this arrangementand associated heat transfer processes between the first reaction zone5111 a and second reaction zone 5111 b are described in more detailbelow in Section 4.8.

In at least some instances, it is desirable to provide cooling to thereactor 5110, in addition to the solar heating described above. Forexample, cooling can be used to remove heat produced by the exothermicreaction being conducted at the second reaction zone 5111 b and thusallow the reaction to continue. When the product produced at the secondreaction zone 5111 b includes methanol, it may desirable to further coolthe methanol to a liquid to provide for convenient storage andtransportation. Accordingly, the system 5100 can include features thatfacilitate using the concentrator surface 5123 to cool components orconstituents at the reactor 5110. In a particular embodiment, the system5100 includes a first heat exchanger 5150 a operatively coupled to aheat exchanger actuator 5151 b that moves the first heat exchanger 5150a relative to the focal area 5124. The first heat exchanger 5150 a caninclude a heat exchanger fluid that communicates thermally with theconstituents in the reactor 5110, but is in fluid isolation from theseconstituents to avoid contaminating the constituents and/or interferingwith the reactions taking place in the reactor 5110. The heat exchangerfluid travels around a heat exchanger fluid flow path 5153 in a circuitfrom the first heat exchanger 5150 a to a second heat exchanger 5150 band back. At the second heat exchanger 5150 b, the heat exchanger fluidreceives heat from the product (e.g. methanol) produced by the reactor5110 as the product proceeds from the second reaction zone 5111 b to thedistribution/collection system 5140. The heat exchanger fluid flow path5153 delivers the heated heat exchanger fluid back to the first heatexchanger 5150 a for cooling. One or more strain relief features 5152 inthe heat exchanger fluid flow path 5153 (e.g., coiled conduits)facilitate the movement of the first heat exchanger 5150 a. The system5100 can also include a controller 5190 that receives input signals 5191from any of a variety of sensors, transducers, and/or other elements ofthe system 5100, and, in response to information received from theseelements, delivers control signals 5192 to adjust operational parametersof the system 5100.

FIG. R5-2 illustrates one mechanism by which the heat exchanger fluidprovided to the first heat exchanger 5150 a is cooled. In thisembodiment, the controller 5190 directs the heat exchanger actuator 5151to drive the first heat exchanger 5150 a from the position shown in FIG.R5-1 to the focal area 5124, as indicated by arrows A. In addition, thecontroller 5190 can direct the concentrator actuator 5125 to positionthe dish 5121 so that the concentrator surface 5123 points away from thesun and to an area of the sky having very little radiant energy. Ingeneral, this process can be completed at night, when it is easier toavoid the radiant energy of the sun and the local environment, but in atleast some embodiments, this process can be conducted during the daytimeas well. A radiant energy sensor 5193 coupled to the controller 5190 candetect when the incoming solar radiation passes below a threshold level,indicating a suitable time for positioning the first heat exchanger 5150a in the location shown in FIG. R5-2.

With the first heat exchanger 5150 a in the position shown in FIG. R5-2,the hot heat transfer fluid in the heat exchanger 5150 a radiatesemitted energy 5128 that is collected by the dish 5121 at theconcentrator surface 5123 and redirected outwardly as directed emittedenergy 5129. An insulator 5130 positioned adjacent to the focal area5124 can prevent the radiant energy from being emitted in directionother than toward the concentrator surface 5123. By positioning theconcentrator surface 5123 to point to a region in space having verylittle radiative energy, the region in space can operate as a heat sink,and can accordingly receive the directed emitted energy 5129 rejected bythe first heat exchanger 5150 a. The heat exchanger fluid, after beingcooled at the first heat exchanger 5150 a returns to the second heatexchanger 5150 b to absorb more heat from the product flowing along theproduct flow path 5154. Accordingly, the concentrator surface 5123 canbe used to cool as well as to heat elements of the reactor 5110.

In a particular embodiment, the first heat exchanger 5150 a ispositioned as shown in FIG. R5-1 during the day, and as positioned asshown in FIG. R5-2 during the night. In other embodiments, multiplesystems 5100 can be coupled together, some with the corresponding firstheat exchanger 5150 a positioned as shown in FIG. R5-1, and others withthe first heat exchanger 5150 a positioned as shown in FIG. R5-2, toprovide simultaneous heating and cooling. In any of these embodiments,the cooling process can be used to liquefy methanol, and/or provideother functions. Such functions can include liquefying or solidifyingother substances, e.g., carbon dioxide, ethanol, butanol or hydrogen.

In particular embodiments, the reactants delivered to the reactor 5110are selected to include hydrogen, which is dissociated from the otherelements of the reactant (e.g. carbon, nitrogen, boron, silicon, atransition metal, and/or sulfur) to produce a hydrogen-based fuel (e.g.diatomic hydrogen) and a structural building block that can be furtherprocessed to produce durable goods. Such durable goods include graphite,graphene, and/or polymers, which may produced from carbon structuralbuilding blocks, and other suitable compounds formed from hydrogenous orother structural building blocks. Further details of suitable processesand products are disclosed in the following co-pending U.S. patentapplications: Ser. No. 13/027,208 titled “CHEMICAL PROCESSES ANDREACTORS FOR EFFICIENTLY PRODUCING HYDROGEN FUELS AND STRUCTURALMATERIALS, AND ASSOCIATED SYSTEMS AND METHODS”; Ser. No. 13/027,214titled “ARCHITECTURAL CONSTRUCT HAVING FOR EXAMPLE A PLURALITY OFARCHITECTURAL CRYSTALS” (Attorney Docket No. 69545.8701US); and Ser. No.12/027,068 titled “CARBON-BASED DURABLE GOODS AND RENEWABLE FUEL FROMBIOMASS WASTE DISSOCIATION” (Attorney Docket No. 69545.9002US), all ofwhich were filed Feb. 14, 2011 and are incorporated herein by reference.

FIG. R5-3 illustrates a system 5300 having a reactor 5310 with a movabledish 5321 configured in accordance another embodiment of the disclosedtechnology. In a particular aspect of this embodiment, the reactor 5310includes a first reaction zone 5311 a and a second reaction zone 5311 b,with the first reaction zone 5311 a receiving focused solar energy 5127when the dish 5321 has a first position, shown in solid lines in FIG.R5-3. The dish 5321 is coupled to a dish actuator 5331 that moves thedish 5321 relative to the reaction zones 5311 a, 5311 b. Accordingly,during a second phase of operation, the controller 5190 directs the dishactuator 5331 to move the dish 5321 to the second position shown indashed lines in FIG. R5-3. In one embodiment, this arrangement can beused to provide heat to the second reaction zone 5311 b when the dish5321 is in the second position. In another embodiment, this arrangementcan be used to cool the second reaction zone 5311 b. Accordingly, thecontroller 5190 can direct the concentrator actuator 5125 to point thedish 5321 to a position in the sky having little or no radiant energy,thus allowing the second reaction zone 5311 b to reject heat to the dish5321 and ultimately to space, in a manner generally similar to thatdescribed above with reference to FIGS. R5-1 and R5-2.

Still further embodiments of suitable reactors with solar concentratorsare disclosed in issued U.S. Pat. No. 8,187,550, incorporated herein byreference.

4.6 Representative Reactors with Induction Heating

FIG. R6-1 is a partially schematic, partial cross-sectional illustrationof a system 6100 having a reactor 6110 configured in accordance with anembodiment of the presently disclosed technology. In one aspect of thisembodiment, the reactor 6110 includes a reactor vessel 6111 having areaction or induction zone 6123 which is heated by an induction coil6120. The induction coil 6120 can be a liquid-cooled, high frequencyalternating current coil coupled to a suitable electrical power source6121. The reactor vessel 6111 can further include an entrance port 6112coupled to a precursor gas source 6101 to receive a suitable precursorgas, and an exit port 6113 positioned to remove spent gas and/or otherconstituents from the vessel 6111. In a particular embodiment, theprecursor gas source 6101 carries a hydrocarbon gas (e.g., methane),which is dissociated into carbon and hydrogen at the induction zone6123. The carbon is then deposited on a substrate to form a product, asis described further below, and the hydrogen and/or other constituentsare removed for further processing, as is also described further below.

The reaction vessel 6111 houses a first support 6114 a having a firstsupport surface 6115 a, and a second support 6114 b having a secondsupport surface 6115 b facing toward the first support surface 6115 a.Each support 6114 a, 6114 b can carry a substrate upon which one or moreconstituents of the precursor gas are deposited. For example, the firstsupport 6114 a can carry a first substrate 6130 a and the second support6114 b can carry a second substrate 6130 b. In a representativeembodiment in which the precursor gas is selected to deposit carbon, thefirst and second substances 6130 a, 6130 b can also include carbon,e.g., in the form of graphite or a constituent of steel. When theprecursor gas includes a different deposition element (e.g., nitrogenand/or boron), the composition of the first and second substrates 6130a, 6130 b can be different. Each of the substrates 6130 a, 6130 b canhave an initially exposed surface facing the other. Accordingly, thefirst substrate 6130 a can have an exposed first surface 6131 a facingtoward a second exposed surface 6131 b of the second substrate 6130 b.The remaining surfaces of each substrate 6130 a, 6130 b can be insulatedto prevent or significantly restrict radiation losses from thesesurfaces. The supports 6114 a, 6114 b can insulate at least one surfaceof each of the substrates 6130 a, 6130 b. The other surfaces (other thanthe exposed first and second substrates 6131 a, 6131 b) can be protectedby a corresponding insulator 6132. The insulator 6132 can be formed froma suitable high temperature ceramic or other material.

The system 6100 can further include a controller 6190 that receivesinput signals 6191 from any of a variety of sensors, transducers, and/orother elements of the system 6100, and in response to informationreceived from these elements, delivers control signals 6192 to adjustoperational parameters of the system 6100. These parameters can includethe pressures and flow rates with which the gaseous constituents areprovided to and/or removed from the reactor vessel 6111, the operationof the induction coil 6120 and associated power source 6121, and theoperation of a separator 6103 (described below), among others.

In operation, the precursor gas source 6101 supplies gas to theinduction zone 6123, the induction coil 6120 is activated, and theprecursor gas dissociates into at least one constituent (e.g., carbon)that is deposited onto the first and second substrates 6130 a, 6130 b.The constituent can be deposited in an epitaxial process that preservesthe crystal grain orientation of the corresponding substrate 6130 a,6130 b. Accordingly, the deposited constituent can also have a crystaland/or other self-organized structure. As the constituent is deposited,it forms a first formed structure or product 6140 a at the firstsubstrate 6130 a, and a second formed structure or product 6140 b at thesecond substrate 6130 b. The first and second formed structures 6140 a,6140 b each have a corresponding exposed surface 6141 a, 6141 b facingtoward the other. The structures 6140 a, 6140 b can have the same ordifferent cross-sectional shapes and/or areas, and/or can havenon-crystalline, single crystal or multicrystal organizations, dependingupon the selected embodiment. Radiation emitted by the first exposedsurface 6131 a of the first substrate 6130 a, and/or by the firstexposed surface 6141 a of the first formed structure 6140 a(collectively identified by arrow R1) is received at the second exposedsurface 6141 b of the second formed structure 6140 b, and/or the secondexposed surface 6131 b of the second substrate 6130 b. Similarly,radiation emitted by the second exposed surface 6141 b of the secondformed structure 6140 b and/or the second exposed surface 6131 b of thesecond substrate 6130 b (collectively identified by arrow R2) isreceived at the first formed structure 6140 a and/or the first substrate6130 a.

As the formed structures 6140 a, 6140 b grow, the exit port 6113provides an opening through which residual constituents from thedissociated precursor gas and/or non-dissociated quantities of theprecursor gas can pass. These constituents are directed to a collectionsystem 6102, which can include a separator 6103 configured to separatethe constituents into two or more flow streams. For example, theseparator 6103 can direct one stream of constituents to a first productcollector 6104 a, and a second stream of constituents to a secondproduct collector 6104 b. In a particular embodiment, the first productcollector 6104 a can collect pure or substantially pure hydrogen, whichcan be delivered to a hydrogen-based fuel cell 6105 or other device thatrequires hydrogen at a relatively high level of purity. The secondstream of constituents directed to the second product collector 6104 bcan include hydrogen mixed with other elements or compounds. Suchelements or compounds can include methane or another undissociatedprecursor gas, and/or carbon (or another element or compound targetedfor deposition) that was not deposited on the first substrate 6130 a orthe second substrate 6130 b. These constituents can be directed to anengine 6106, for example, a turbine engine or another type of internalcombustion engine that can burn a mixture of hydrogen and the otherconstituents. The engine 6106 and/or the fuel cell 6105 can providepower for any number of devices, including the electrical power source6121 for the inductive coil 6120. In another aspect of this embodiment,at least some of the constituents (e.g., undissociated precursor gas)received at the second collector 6104 b can be directed back into thereactor 6110 via the entrance port 6112.

An advantage of the foregoing arrangement is that the radiation lossestypically encountered in a chemical vapor deposition apparatus can beavoided by positioning multiple substrates in a manner that allowsradiation emitted from one surface to be received by another surfacethat is also targeted for deposition. In a particular embodiment shownin FIG. R6-1, two substrates are shown, each having a single exposedsurface facing the other. In other embodiments, additional substratescan be positioned (e.g., in a plane extending inwardly and/or outwardlytransverse to the plane of FIG. R6-1) to allow additional exposedsurfaces of a formed product to radiate heat to corresponding surfacesof other formed products.

Another advantage of the foregoing arrangement is that it can be used toproduce a structural building block and/or an architectural construct,as well as clean burning hydrogen fuel from a hydrogen donor. When theprecursor gas includes a hydrocarbon, the architectural construct caninclude graphene and/or another carbon-bearing material, for example, amaterial that can be further processed to form a carbon-based compositeor a carbon-based polymer. In other embodiments, the precursor gas caninclude other elements (e.g., boron, nitrogen, sulfur, silicon, and/or atransition metal) than can also be used to form structural buildingblocks that contain the element, and/or architectural constructs formedfrom the building blocks. Suitable processes and representativearchitectural constructs are further described in the followingco-pending U.S. patent applications, all of which were filed on Feb. 14,2011 and are incorporated herein by reference: application Ser. No.13/027,208; application Ser. No. 13/027,214; and application Ser. No.13/027,068.

One feature of an embodiment described above with reference to FIG. R6-1is that it may be conducted in a batch process. For example, each of thefirst and second formed structures 6140 a, 6140 b can be grown by aparticular amount and then removed from the reaction vessel 6111. Inother embodiments, the products can be formed in a continuous manner,without the need for halting the reaction to remove the product.

Still further embodiments of suitable reactors with induction heatingare disclosed in pending U.S. application Ser. No. 13/027,215, filedFeb. 14, 2011, and incorporated herein by reference.

4.7 Representative Reactors Using Engine Heat

FIG. R7-2 is a partially schematic illustration of system 7100 thatincludes a reactor 7110 in combination with a radiant energy/reactantsource 7150 in accordance with another embodiment of the technology. Inthis embodiment, the radiant energy/reactant source 7150 includes anengine 7180, e.g., an internal combustion engine having a piston 7182that reciprocates within a cylinder 7181. In other embodiments, theengine 7180 can have other configurations, for example, an externalcombustion configuration. In an embodiment shown in FIG. R7-2, theengine 7180 includes an intake port 7184 a that is opened and closed byan intake valve 7183 a to control air entering the cylinder 7181 throughan air filter 7178. The air flow can be unthrottled in an embodimentshown in FIG. R7-2, and can be throttled in other embodiments. A fuelinjector 7185 directs fuel into the combustion zone 7179 where it mixeswith the air and ignites to produce the combustion products 7152.Additional fuel can be introduced by an injection valve 7189 a. Thecombustion products 7152 exit the cylinder 7181 via an exhaust port 7184b controlled by an exhaust valve 7183 b. Further details ofrepresentative engines and ignition systems are disclosed in co-pendingU.S. application Ser. No. 12/653,085 filed on Dec. 7, 2010, andincorporated herein by reference.

The engine 7180 can include features specifically designed to integratethe operation of the engine with the operation of the reactor 7110. Forexample, the engine 7180 and the reactor 7110 can share fuel from acommon fuel source 7130 which is described in further detail below. Thefuel is provided to the fuel injector 7185 via a regulator 7186. Theengine 7180 can also receive end products from the reactor 7110 via afirst conduit or passage 7177 a, and water (e.g., liquid or steam) fromthe reactor 7110 via a second conduit or passage 7177 b. Further aspectsof these features are described in greater detail below, following adescription of the other features of the overall system 7100.

The system 7100 shown in FIG. R7-1 also includes heat exchangers andseparators configured to transfer heat and segregate reaction productsin accordance with the disclosed technology. In a particular aspect ofthis embodiment, the system 7100 includes a steam/water source 7140 thatprovides steam to the reactor vessel 7111 to facilitate productformation. Steam from the steam/water source 7140 can be provided to thereactor 7110 via at least two channels. The first channel includes afirst water path 7141 a that passes through a first heat exchanger 7170a and into the reactor vessel 7111 via a first steam distributor 7116 a.Products removed from the reactor vessel 7111 pass through a reactorproduct exit port 7117 and along a products path 7161. The products path7161 passes through the first heat exchanger 7170 a in a counter-flow orcounter-current manner to cool the products and heat the steam enteringthe reactor vessel 7111. The products continue to a reaction productseparator 7171 a that segregates useful end products (e.g., hydrogen andcarbon or carbon compounds). At least some of the products are thendirected back to the engine 7180, and other products are then collectedat a products collector 7160 a. A first valve 7176 a regulates theproduct flow. Water remaining in the products path 7161 can be separatedat the reaction product separator 7171 a and returned to the steam/watersource 7140.

The second channel via which the steam/water source 7140 provides steamto the reactor 7110 includes a second water path 7141 b that passesthrough a second heat exchanger 7170 b. Water proceeding along thesecond water path 7141 b enters the reactor 7110 in the form of steamvia a second stream distributor 7116 b. This water is heated bycombustion products that have exited the combustion zone 7179 and passedthrough the transfer passage 7118 (which can include a transmissivesurface 7119) along a combustion products path 7154. The spentcombustion products 7152 are collected at a combustion productscollector 7160 b and can include nitrogen compounds, phosphates, re-usedilluminant additives (e.g., sources of sodium, magnesium and/orpotassium), and/or other compositions that may be recycled or used forother purposes (e.g., agricultural purposes). The illuminant additivescan be added to the combustion products 7152 (and/or the fuel used bythe engine 7180) upstream of the reactor 7110 to increase the amount ofradiant energy available for transmission into the reaction zone 7112.

In addition to heating water along the second water path 7141 b andcooling the combustion products along the combustion products path 7154,the second heat exchanger 7170 b can heat the hydrogen donor passingalong a donor path 7131 to a donor distributor 7115 located within thereactor vessel 7111. The donor vessel 7130 houses a hydrogen donor,e.g., a hydrocarbon such as methane, or a nitrogenous donor such asammonia. The donor vessel 7130 can include one or more heaters 7132(shown as first heater 7132 a and a second heater 7132 b) to vaporizeand/or pressurize the hydrogen donor within. A three-way valve 7133 anda regulator 7134 control the amount of fluid and/or vapor that exits thedonor vessel 7130 and passes along the donor path 7131 through thesecond heat exchanger 7170 b and into the reactor vessel 7111. Asdiscussed above, the hydrogen donor can also serve as a fuel for theengine 7180, in at least some embodiments, and can be delivered to theengine 7180 via a third conduit or passage 7177 c.

In the reactor vessel 7111, the combustion products 7152 pass throughthe combustion products passage 7118 while delivering radiant energyand/or reactants through the transmissive surface 7119 into the reactionzone 7112. After passing through the second heat exchanger 7170 b, thecombustion products 7152 can enter a combustion products separator 7171b that separates water from the combustion products. The water returnsto the steam/water source 7140 and the remaining combustion products arecollected at the combustion products collector 7160 b. In a particularembodiment, the separator 7171 b can include a centrifugal separatorthat is driven by the kinetic energy of the combustion product stream.If the kinetic energy of the combustion product stream is insufficientto separate the water by centrifugal force, a motor/generator 7172 canadd energy to the separator 7171 b to provide the necessary centrifugalforce. If the kinetic energy of the combustion product stream is greaterthan is necessary to separate water, the motor/generator 7172 canproduce energy, e.g., to be used by other components of the system 7100.The controller 7190 receives inputs from the various elements of thesystem 7100 and controls flow rates, pressures, temperatures, and/orother parameters.

The controller 7190 can also control the return of reactor products tothe engine 7180. For example, the controller can direct reactionproducts and/or recaptured water back to the engine 7180 via a series ofvalves. In a particular embodiment, the controller 7190 can direct theoperation of the first valve 7176 a which directs hydrogen and carbonmonoxide obtained from the first separator 7171 a to the engine 7180 viathe first conduit 7177 a. These constituents can be burned in thecombustion zone 7179 to provide additional power from the engine 7180.In some instances, it may be desirable to cool the combustion zone 7179and/or other elements of the engine 7180 as shown. In such instances,the controller 7190 can control a flow of water or steam to the engine7180 via second and third valves 7176 b, 7176 c and the correspondingsecond conduit 7177 b.

In some instances, it may be desirable to balance the energy provided tothe reactor 7110 with energy extracted from the engine 7180 used forother proposes. According, the system 7100 can included a proportioningvalve 7187 in the combustion products stream that can direct somecombustion products 7152 to a power extraction device 7188, for example,a turbo-alternator, turbocharger or a supercharger. When the powerextraction device 7188 includes a supercharger, it operates to compressair entering the engine cylinder 7181 via the intake port 7184 a. Whenthe extraction device 7188 includes a turbocharger, it can include anadditional fuel injection valve 7189 b that directs fuel into themixture of combustion products for further combustion to produceadditional power. This power can supplement the power provided by theengine 7180, or it can be provided separately, e.g., via a separateelectrical generator.

As is evident from the forgoing discussion, one feature of the system7100 is that it is specifically configured to conserve and reuse energyfrom the combustion products 7152. Accordingly, the system 7100 caninclude additional features that are designed to reduce energy lossesfrom the combustion products 7152. Such features can include insulationpositioned around the cylinder 7181, at the head of the piston 7182,and/or at the ends of the valves 7183 a, 7183 b. Accordingly, theinsulation prevents or at least restricts heat from being conveyed awayfrom the engine 7180 via any thermal channel other than the passage7118.

One feature of at least some of the foregoing embodiments is that thereactor system can include a reactor and an engine linked in aninterdependent manner. In particular, the engine can provide waste heatthat facilitates a dissociation process conducted at the reactor toproduce a hydrogen-based fuel and a non-hydrogen based structuralbuilding block. The building block can include a molecule containingcarbon, boron, nitrogen, silicon and/or sulfur, and can be used to forman architectural construct. Representative examples of architecturalconstructs, in addition to the polymers and composites described aboveare described in further detail in co-pending U.S. application Ser. No.12/027,214, previously incorporated herein by reference. An advantage ofthis arrangement is that it can provide a synergy between the engine andthe reactor. For example, the energy inputs normally required by thereactor to conduct the dissociation processes described above can bereduced by virtue of the additional energy provided by the combustionproduct. The efficiency of the engine can be improved by addingclean-burning hydrogen to the combustion chamber, and/or by providingwater (e.g., in steam or liquid form) for cooling the engine. Althoughboth the steam and the hydrogen-based fuel are produced by the reactor,they can be delivered to the engine at different rates and/or can varyin accordance with different schedules and/or otherwise in differentmanners.

Still further embodiments of suitable reactors with using engine heatare disclosed in pending U.S. application Ser. No. 13/027,198, filedFeb. 14, 2011, and incorporated herein by reference.

4.8 Representative Exothermic/Endothermic Reactors

FIG. R8-1 is a partially schematic, cross-sectional illustration ofparticular components of the system 8100, including the reactor vessel8101. The reactor vessel 8101 includes the first reaction zone 8110positioned toward the upper left of FIG. R8-2 (e.g., at a first reactorportion) to receive incident solar radiation 8106, e.g., through a solartransmissive surface 8107. The second reaction zone 8120 is alsopositioned within the reactor vessel 8101, e.g., at a second reactorportion, to receive products from the first reaction zone 8110 and toproduce an end product, for example, methanol. Reactant sources 8153provide reactants to the reactor vessel 8101, and a product collector8123 collects the resulting end product. A regulation system 8150, whichcan include valves 8151 or other regulators and corresponding actuators8152, is coupled to the reactant sources 8153 to control the delivery ofreactants to the first reaction zone 8110 and to control other flowswithin the system 8100. In other embodiments, the valves can be replacedby or supplemented with other mechanisms, e.g., pumps.

In a particular embodiment, the reactant sources 8153 include a methanesource 8153 a and a carbon dioxide source 8153 b. The methane source8153 a is coupled to a first reactant valve 8151 a having acorresponding actuator 8152 a, and the carbon dioxide source 8153 b iscoupled to a second reactant valve 8151 b having a correspondingactuator 8152 b. The reactants pass into the reaction vessel 8101 andare conducted upwardly around the second reaction zone 8120 and thefirst reaction zone 8110 as indicated by arrows A. As the reactantstravel through the reactor vessel 8101, they can receive heat from thefirst and second reaction zones 8110, 8120 and from products passingfrom the first reaction zone 8110 to the second reaction zone 8120, aswill be described in further detail later. The reactants enter the firstreaction zone 8110 at a first reactant port 8111. At the first reactionzone 8110, the reactants can undergo the following reaction:

CH₄+CO₂+HEAT→2CO+2H₂  [Equation R8-1]

In a particular embodiment, the foregoing endothermic reaction isconducted at about 900° C. and at pressures of up to about 1,500 psi. Inother embodiments, reactions with other reactants can be conducted atother temperatures at the first reaction zone 8110. The first reactionzone 8110 can include any of a variety of suitable catalysts, forexample, a nickel/aluminum oxide catalyst. In particular embodiments,the reactants and/or the first reaction zone 8110 can be subjected toacoustic pressure fluctuation (in addition to the overall pressurechanges caused by introducing reactants, undergoing the reaction, andremoving products from the first reaction zone 8110) to aid indelivering the reactants to the reaction sites of the catalyst. In anyof these embodiments, the products produced at the first reaction zone8110 (e.g. carbon monoxide and hydrogen) exit the first reaction zone8110 at a first product port 8112 and enter a first heat exchanger 8140a. The first products travel through the first heat exchanger 8140 aalong a first flow path 8141 and transfer heat to the incoming reactantstraveling along a second flow path 8142. Accordingly, the incomingreactants can be preheated at the first heat exchanger 8140 a, and byvirtue of passing along or around the outside of the first reaction zone8110. In particular embodiments, one or more surfaces of the first heatexchanger 8140 a can include elements or materials that absorb radiationat one frequency and re-radiate it at another. Further details ofsuitable materials and arrangements are disclosed in Section 4.2 above.

The first products enter the second reaction zone 8120 via a secondreactant port 8121 and a check valve 8156 or other flow inhibitor. Thecheck valve 8156 is configured to allow a one-way flow of the firstproducts into the second reaction zone 8120 when the pressure of thefirst products exceeds the pressure in the second reaction zone 8120. Inother embodiments, the check valve 8156 can be replaced with anothermechanism, e.g., a piston or pump that conveys the first products to thesecond reaction zone 8120.

At the second reaction zone 8120, the first products from the firstreaction zone 8110 undergo an exothermic reaction, for example:

2CO+2H₂+2′H₂→CH₃OH+HEAT  [Equation R8-2]

The foregoing exothermic reaction can be conducted at a temperature ofapproximately 250° C. and in many cases at a pressure higher than thatof the endothermic reaction in the first reaction zone 8110. To increasethe pressure at the second reaction zone 8120, the system 8100 caninclude an additional constituent source 8154 (e.g. a source ofhydrogen) that is provided to the second reaction zone 8120 via a valve8151 c and corresponding actuator 8152 c. The additional constituent(e.g. hydrogen, represented by 2′H₂ in Equation R8-2) can pressurize thesecond reaction zone with or without necessarily participating as aconsumable in the reaction identified in Equation R8-2. In particular,the additional hydrogen may be produced at pressure levels beyond 1,500psi, e.g., up to about 5,000 psi or more, to provide the increasedpressure at the second reaction zone 8120. In a representativeembodiment, the additional hydrogen may be provided in a separatedissociation reaction using methane or another reactant. For example,the hydrogen can be produced in a separate endothermic reaction,independent of the reactions at the first and second reaction zones8110, 8120, as follows:

CH₄+HEAT→C+2H₂  [Equation R8-3]

In addition to producing hydrogen for pressurizing the second reactionzone 8120, the foregoing reaction can produce carbon suitable to serveas a building block in the production of any of a variety of suitableend products, including polymers, self-organizing carbon-basedstructures such as graphene, carbon composites, and/or other materials.Further examples of suitable products are included in co-pending U.S.application Ser. No. 12/027,214 previously concurrently herewith andincorporated herein by reference.

The reaction at the second reaction zone 8120 can be facilitated with asuitable catalyst, for example, copper, zinc, aluminum and/or compoundsincluding one or more of the foregoing elements. The product resultingfrom the reaction at the second reaction zone 8120 (e.g. methanol) iscollected at the product collector 8123. Accordingly, the methanol exitsthe second reaction zone 8120 at a second product port 8122 and passesthrough a second heat exchanger 8140 b. At the second heat exchanger8140 b, the methanol travels along a third flow path 8143 and transfersheat to the incoming constituents provided to the first reaction zone8110 along a fourth flow path 8144. Accordingly, the two heat exchangers8140 a, 8140 b can increase the overall efficiency of the reactionstaking place in the reactor vessel 8101 by conserving and recycling theheat generated at the first and second reaction zones.

In a particular embodiment, energy is provided to the first reactionzone 8110 via the solar concentrator 8103 described above with referenceto FIG. R8-2. Accordingly, the energy provided to the first reactionzone 8110 by the solar collector 8103 will be intermittent. The system8100 can include a supplemental energy source that allows the reactionsto continue in the absence of sufficient solar energy. In particular,the system 8100 can include a supplemental heat source 8155. Forexample, the supplemental heat source 8155 can include a combustionreactant source 8155 a (e.g. providing carbon monoxide) and an oxidizersource 8155 b (e.g. providing oxygen). The flows from the reactantsource 8155 a and oxidizer source 8155 b are controlled by correspondingvalves 8151 d, 8151 e, and actuators 8152 d, 8152 e. In operation, thereactant and oxidizer are delivered to the reactor vessel 8101 viacorresponding conduits 8157 a, 8157 b. The reactant and oxidizer can bepreheated within the reactor vessel 8101, before reaching a combustionzone 8130, as indicated by arrow B. At the combustion zone 8130, thecombustion reactant and oxidizer are combusted to provide heat to thefirst reaction zone 8110, thus supporting the endothermic reactiontaking place within the first reaction zone 8110 in the absence ofsufficient solar energy. The result of the combustion can also yieldcarbon dioxide, thus reducing the need for carbon dioxide from thecarbon dioxide source 8153 b. The controller 8190 can control when thesecondary heat source 8155 is activated and deactivated, e.g., inresponse to a heat or light sensor.

In another embodiment, the oxygen provided by the oxidizer source 8155 bcan react directly with the methane at the combustion zone 8130 toproduce carbon dioxide and hydrogen. This in turn can also reduce theamount of carbon dioxide required at the first reaction zone 8110. Stillfurther embodiments of suitable exothermic/endothermic reactors aredisclosed in pending U.S. application Ser. No. 13/027,060, filed Feb.14, 2011, and incorporated herein by reference.

From the foregoing, it will be appreciated that specific embodiments ofthe technology have been described herein for purposes of illustration,but that various modifications may be made without deviating from thetechnology. For example, in certain embodiments, the working fluidexiting buffer tank 421 is directed to a storage pond that stores excessheat for later retrieval. The storage pond can include an above-groundreservoir, and/or an underground reservoir. In other embodiments, windpower operates the pump 409. In still further embodiments, thegeothermal heat source is located at a submerged location or below anocean floor, with the ocean floor having methane hydrates that may serveas a donor substance for the chemical reactor. In still furtherembodiments, the geothermal heat source can be located in or beneath aland formation that is itself underwater, e.g., a submerged geothermalheat source, as discussed above with reference to FIG. 2E. Furtherembodiments include using heat pipes to transfer heat from thegeothermal source to a TCP reactor. In still further embodiments, anelectrolyzer can operate in conjunction with or instead of the TCPreactor 426 shown in FIG. 4 to dissociate water into hydrogen andoxygen. In yet further embodiments, the working fluid and/or thehydrogen donor can include constituents in addition to or in lieu ofthose described above, e.g., methanol or propane. In still furtherembodiments, the reactor can separate constituents via processes otherthan those specifically described above, e.g., thermal decomposition,electrolysis.

The methods disclosed herein include and encompass, in addition tomethods of making and using the disclosed devices and systems, methodsof instructing others to make and use the disclosed devices and systems.For example, a method in accordance with a particular embodimentincludes heating a working fluid at the geothermal heat source,extracting a constituent from the geothermal heat source with theworking fluid, separating the constituent from the working fluid,transferring heat from the working fluid to a reactor, providing a donorsubstance to the reactor, reacting the donor substance at the reactorusing the heat provided by the working fluid, and removing a reactionproduct from the reactor. A method in accordance with another embodimentincludes instructing such a method. Accordingly, any and all methods ofuse and manufacture disclosed herein also fully disclose and enablecorresponding methods of instructing such methods of use andmanufacture.

Certain aspects of the technology described in the context of particularembodiments may be combined or eliminated in other embodiments. Forexample, the elevation feature described above in the context of FIG. 3can be applied to the arrangement shown in FIGS. 2A and 4. In particularembodiments, additional hydrogen may be obtained from natural platetectonics phenomena. For example, olivine and limestone can react tocause state changes in iron, which can in turn react with water toproduce hydrogen. This hydrogen can be collected by the working fluid.Further embodiments can include features disclosed in any of thefollowing U.S. non-provisional applications, each of which was filed onAug. 13, 2012 and is incorporated herein by reference:

-   U.S. Ser. No. 13/584,748, titled “FUEL-CELL SYSTEMS OPERABLE IN    MULTIPLE MODES FOR VARIABLE PROCESSING OF FEEDSTOCK MATERIALS AND    ASSOCIATED DEVICES, SYSTEMS, AND METHODS” (Attorney Docket No.    69545.8607US1);-   U.S. Ser. No. 13/584,741, titled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR COLLECTING    AND PROCESSING PERMAFROST GASES, AND FOR COOLING PERMAFROST”    (Attorney Docket No. 69545.8609US1);-   U.S. Ser. No. 13/584,688, titled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PROVIDING    SUPPLEMENTAL AQUEOUS THERMAL ENERGY” (Attorney Docket No.    69545.8612US1);-   U.S. Ser. No. 13/584,708, titled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR EXTRACTING    AND PROCESSING GASES FROM SUBMERGED SOURCES” (Attorney Docket No.    69545.8613US1);-   U.S. Ser. No. 13/584,749, titled “MOBILE TRANSPORT PLATFORMS FOR    PRODUCING HYDROGEN AND STRUCTURAL MATERIALS, AND ASSOCIATED SYSTEMS    AND METHODS” (Attorney Docket No. 69545.8614US1); and-   U.S. Ser. No. 13/584,786, titled “REDUCING AND/OR HARVESTING DRAG    ENERGY FROM TRANSPORT VEHICLES, INCLUDING FOR CHEMICAL REACTORS, AND    ASSOCIATED SYSTEMS AND METHODS” (Attorney Docket No. 69545.8615US2).

Further, while advantages associated with certain embodiments of thetechnology have been described in the context of those embodiments,other embodiments may also exhibit such advantages, and not allembodiments need necessarily exhibit such advantages to fall within thescope of the present disclosure. Accordingly, the present disclosure andassociated technology can encompass other embodiments not expresslyshown or described herein.

1-18. (canceled)
 19. A method for heating a reactor system with ageothermal heat source, comprising: heating a working fluid at thegeothermal heat source; extracting a constituent from the geothermalheat source with the working fluid; separating the constituent from theworking fluid; transferring heat from the working fluid to a reactor;providing a donor substance to the reactor; reacting the donor substanceat the reactor using the heat provided by the working fluid; andremoving a reaction product from the reactor.
 20. The method of claim 19wherein the working fluid includes ammonia.
 21. The method of claim 19wherein the working fluid includes at least one of carbon monoxide andcarbon dioxide.
 22. The method of claim 19 wherein the constituentincludes a metal.
 23. The method of claim 19 wherein the constituentincludes a rare earth metal.
 24. The method of claim 19 wherein thereaction product is at least one of carbon, silicon carbide, graphite,graphene, a carbon film, a ceramic, a semiconductor device, and apolymer.
 25. The method of claim 19 wherein heating the working fluidincludes disposing the working fluid in direct contact with thegeothermal heat source.
 26. The method of claim 19 wherein heating theworking fluid includes directing the working fluid to exit a firstconduit at an entry portion of the geothermal heat source, directing theworking fluid to pass along a flowpath extending through the geothermalheat source with the working fluid being in direct contact with thegeothermal heat source, and directing the working fluid to enter asecond conduit at an exit portion of the geothermal source, the secondconduit being spaced apart from the first conduit.
 27. A method forheating a reactor system with a geothermal heat source, comprising:directing a working fluid into thermal contact with the geothermal heatsource to transfer heat from the geothermal heat source to the workingfluid; transferring heat from the working fluid to a chemical reactor;dissociating a constituent from a donor substance in a non-combustivechemical process at the chemical reactor, using the heat transferredfrom the working fluid; elevating the working fluid in a gas phase froma first elevation to an intermediate elevation higher than the firstelevation; at the intermediate elevation, changing the phase of theworking fluid from the gas phase to a liquid phase; under the force ofgravity, recirculating the working fluid in the liquid phase from theintermediate elevation and into thermal contact with the geothermal heatsource.
 28. The method of claim 27, further comprising: extracting aconstituent from the geothermal heat source with the working fluid; andseparating the constituent from the working fluid.
 29. The method ofclaim 27 wherein changing the phase of the constituent includes coolingthe constituent.
 30. The method of claim 29 wherein an outsidetemperature at the second elevation is less than an outside temperatureat the first elevation.
 31. The method of claim 27 wherein changing thephase of the constituent includes compressing the constituent.
 32. Themethod of claim 27 wherein the second elevation is at least 500 feetabove the first elevation.